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Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism , doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2846
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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism Vol. 91, No. 12 5090-5094
Copyright © 2006 by The Endocrine Society

Adiponectin Concentration in Umbilical Cord Serum Is Positively Associated with the Weight Ratio of Fetus to Placenta

Kozo Kadowaki, Masako Waguri, Isao Nakanishi, Yoshihiro Miyashita, Masahiro Nakayama, Noriyuki Suehara, Tohru Funahashi, Iichiro Shimomura and Tomio Fujita

Departments of Obstetrics (K.K., N.S.), Internal Medicine (M.W., I.N., Y.M., T.Fuj.), and Pathology (M.N.), Osaka Medical Center and Research Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Izumi, Osaka 594-1101, Japan; and Department of Internal Medicine and Molecular Science (T.Fun., I.S.), Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Kozo Kadowaki, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Obstetrics, Osaka Medical Center and Research Institute for Maternal and Child Health, 840 Murodo-cho, Izumi, Osaka 594-1101, Japan. E-mail: kozo1223{at}aol.com.


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Patients and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Context: Adiponectin (APN) concentration in umbilical cord serum is higher than that in adult serum. Except for the positive association between birth weight and cord APN concentration, little is known about the pathophysiological function of APN in fetal development.

Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship of cord serum APN and IGF-I concentrations with the development of the fetoplacental unit.

Design and Methods: Umbilical cord serum APN and IGF-I concentrations were measured in term singleton deliveries (n = 94). The association of cord APN and IGF-I concentrations was evaluated in relation to fetal weight, placental weight, and fetoplacental (F/P) weight ratio.

Results: Mean concentrations and SD of APN and IGF-I were 36.1 ± 14.0 µg/ml and 58.6 ± 27.0 ng/ml, respectively. Cord APN concentration was positively associated with F/P weight ratio (r = 0.375, P < 0.001) as well as fetal weight (r = 0.389, P < 0.001) but not placental weight. Cord IGF-I concentration was positively associated with fetal weight (r = 0.405, P < 0.001) and placental weight (r = 0.400, P < 0.001) but not F/P weight ratio. In multiregression analysis, only APN concentration resulted in a significant determinant of F/P weight ratio among variables (ß = 0.376, P < 0.001).

Conclusions: In cord hyperadiponectinemia, fetuses tend to be disproportionately larger for their placental weight and vice versa in cord hypoadiponectinemia. APN is shown to be the first biomarker positively associated with F/P weight ratio.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Patients and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
ADIPONECTIN WAS ORIGINALLY purified and identified from human adipose tissue (1) and was characterized as one of the major cytokines exerting pivotal protective effects against metabolic diseases such as diabetes and atherosclerosis (2, 3, 4, 5, 6). The mouse counterparts of adiponectin, Acrp30 or AdipoQ, were also independently cloned by two groups (7, 8). Hypoadiponectinemia is observed in patients with obesity (9), diabetes mellitus (10, 11), or coronary artery disease (12). Animal studies have shown that plasma glucose levels were lowered by injection of adiponectin (13). Elevated fatty acid levels were also decreased by injection of the globular domain of adiponectin (14).

Several studies have shown possible involvement of adiponectin in fetal development (15, 16). As early as 24 wk of gestation, adiponectin is detectable in cord serum, and its level increases dramatically during gestation, reaching near plateau at term (17). The adiponectin level in term pregnancy is higher than that in adult serum (15, 16). In fetal tissue, adiponectin is expressed in not only adipocytes but also other organs including muscle cells and intestinal wall (18).

Adiponectin receptors have been purified and shown to increase AMP kinase and peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-{alpha} ligand activities as well as glucose uptake by adiponectin (19). More recently the gene expression of adiponectin and its receptor in placental tissue has been reported (20).

In human species, both the placenta and fetus grow as the gestational weeks advance. However, their growth curves differ from each other, and hence, the weight ratio of the fetus to the placenta or fetoplacental weight ratio (F/P weight ratio) shows a linear increase during gestation and then reaches near a plateau level at term (21). The weight ratio is approximately one sixth in term pregnancy and one seventh when the umbilical cord and membrane are removed (22, 23). However, the placenta tends to be larger in a adverse environment including maternal anemia (24, 25), diabetes mellitus (26), and living at higher altitudes (27). Evidence has shown that fetuses with larger placenta disproportionate to their body size have higher incidences of developing hypertension later in adult life (28).

Currently there is little known about the mechanism of regulating both fetal and placental size or about the interrelationship between the two.

In this paper, we evaluated the association of umbilical cord adiponectin concentration with fetoplacental development. The findings showed that fetal umbilical cord adiponectin concentration is positively associated with the birth weight of the fetus and, interestingly, with the weight ratio of the fetus to placenta as well. This finding shows that adiponectin is the first bioactive molecule associated with the F/P weight ratio and that adiponectin might facilitate fetal development with a lower increase in placental size.


   Patients and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Patients and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Patients complicated with thyroid disease, diabetes mellitus, or collagen diseases were not recruited. All participants gave informed consent for the study. An oral glucose tolerance test was carried out in all participants during the second trimester, and one patient diagnosed as having gestational diabetes mellitus was excluded. Accordingly, 94 patients with term singleton delivery were included in the analysis. None of the newborns were complicated with any anomaly.

Identification of gestational age

Gestational age was determined basically according to the first-trimester crown-rump length scan or based on the ovulation date on basal body temperature when available.

Anthropometric measurements of fetus and placenta

After delivery, the umbilical cord was clamped, and blood was drawn from the umbilical vein. The umbilical cord was cut, and the placenta was collected. Blood and clots on the surface were removed, and placental weight was measured with a calibrated scale and recorded. Birth weight was measured soon after delivery, and birth length was measured with the use of a wooden measuring board. F/P weight ratio [birth weight (grams) divided by placental weight (grams)] was calculated in each delivery. Fetal body mass index (BMI) was defined as birth weight in kilograms divided by birth length in meters squared.

Assay of umbilical cord serum adiponectin and IGF-I

Plasma samples were kept at –80 C for subsequent assay. The concentration of adiponectin was measured by a sandwich ELISA system (adiponectin ELISA kit; Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), as described previously (9). IGF-I was measured by a ELISA system (human IGF-I immunoassay kit; R&D systems, Minneapolis, MN). The intra- and interassay coefficiencies of variations were 3.3 and 7.4% for adiponectin and 4.0 and 8.0% for IGF-I. The limits of detection for adiponectin and IGF-I were 120 and 2.6 ng/ml, respectively.

Evaluation of the relationships of adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations with anthropometric measures of mother, fetus, and placenta

The relationship between cord adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations with birth weight, placental weight, F/P weight ratio, and other anthropometric measurements were evaluated with univariate regression analysis. Scatterplots for F/P weight ratio against adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations were shown, and a regression line was inserted.

To evaluate the dependency of birth weight, placental weight, and F/P weight ratio on umbilical adiponectin concentration, we stratified the subjects into four groups according to adiponectin concentration. Because mean value and SD of adiponectin concentrations were 36 and 14 µg/ml, respectively, cases were stratified as follows, i.e. less than 22 µg/ml (mean –1.0 SD) in adiponectin concentration was considered the low adiponectin group, and adiponectin concentration more than 50 µg/ml (mean +1.0 SD) was considered the high adiponectin group. The group with a middle level concentration (22 µg/ml < adiponectin ≤ 50 µg/ml) was subdivided into two groups. The clinical and laboratory background of the groups are also shown.

Multivariate regression analysis with F/P weight ratio as an independent variable

Multiple regression analysis was carried out to estimate independent contributions of selected variables (adiponectin, IGF-I, maternal BMI at booking, gestational week, and fetal sex) on F/P weight ratio.

Statistical analysis

The differences in F/P weight ratio among the groups were assessed with Student t test. Statistics, including insertion of regression line, and multivariate regression analysis were all processed with SPSS 12.0 for Windows (SPSS Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan).


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Patients and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Relationships of cord serum adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations with birth weight, placental weight, F/P weight ratio, and other anthropometric measurements of fetus and mother

Both adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations were positively associated with fetal anthropometric measurements including birth weight, birth length, and BMI. Whereas IGF-I was positively associated with placental weight, adiponectin did not show any association (Table 1Go). When association with F/P weight ratio was examined, the positive association was found in adiponectin concentration, whereas IGF-I concentration was not correlated with the F/P weight ratio (Table 1Go and Fig. 1Go). Neither adiponectin nor IGF-I in umbilical cord was associated with anthropometric measurements of the mother.


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  		TABLE 1. Relationships between umbilical cord serum adiponectin and IGF-I concentrations with birth weight, placental weight, F/P weight ratio, and other clinical background data

 

Figure 1
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  		FIG. 1. Relationship between umbilical cord serum adiponectin (APN) and IGF-I concentrations with F/P weight ratio. Adiponectin concentration is positively associated with F/P weight ratio. IGF-I concentration is not associated with F/P weight ratio. The regression line and Pearson correlation coefficient are shown.

 
Evaluation of fetoplacental development and the clinical and laboratory background of the groups categorized according to umbilical cord adiponectin concentration

As shown in Fig. 2Go, F/P weight ratio demonstrated significant differences among the groups. There were no significant differences in maternal BMI at booking, fetal BMI, or gestational week among the groups. There was also no significant difference in IGF-I concentrations (Table 2Go). Although fetal BMI and birth length are positively associated with APN concentration on univariate regression analysis, the trends were attenuated in evaluation among the groups (Table 2Go). In the high adiponectin group, birth weights tended to be larger without a significant increase in placental weight; whereas in the low adiponectin group, birth weight was lower without significant change in placental weight (Fig. 2Go).


Figure 2
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  		FIG. 2. Mean F/P weight ratio, placental weight, and birth weight in each group. Error bar, SD. *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01.

 

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  		TABLE 2. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of all cases

 
Multivariate regression analysis with F/P weight ratio as independent variable

At univariate regression analysis, F/P weight ratio significantly correlated with both adiponectin concentration and gestational week (Table 3Go). When the independent contribution of physical and metabolic variables on F/P weight ratio was tested, only adiponectin resulted in a significant determinant of F/P weight ratio (Table 3Go). Maternal BMI, fetal sex, cord IGF-I concentration, and gestational week were not correlated with F/P weight ratio.


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  		TABLE 3. Univariate and multivariate linear regression analysis for F/P weight ratio

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Patients and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
F/P weight ratio is dependent on gestational age, and even at the same gestational age, the ratio varies quite widely. However, a heavy fetus generally has a large placenta, whereas a small fetus has a small placenta. So when we compare the mean F/P weight ratio between two randomly selected groups, the ratio should be similar. However, when we stratify patients by umbilical cord serum adiponectin concentration, placental weight tend to be disproportionate to birth weight. In the high adiponectin group, the babies have a higher birth weight with a relatively smaller placenta; whereas in the low adiponectin group, the babies have a lower birth weight with a relatively larger placenta. Although the association of F/P weight ratio and adiponectin is significant, as shown in Fig. 1Go, it appears that there was a contribution of three outlying points in which APN concentrations were more than 80 µg/ml. However, even if these three points are excluded, the positive association of adiponectin and F/P weight ratio remains significant (r = 0.311, P = 0.003). Therefore, the positive association seems rather robust.

The positive association of fetal adiponectin level and fetal fat mass are suggested (16). However, because fetal BMI is high, it does not mean that the fetus has a high F/P weight ratio. On the contrary, a fetus with a high birth weight may have an even smaller F/P weight ratio as in the case of newborns from a diabetes mellitus mother. Multiple regression analysis showed neither the BMI of the newborn nor SD score of birth weight is a significant contributor to the F/P weight ratio (data not shown). We evaluated the association of F/P weight ratio with adiponectin concentration per birth weight, i.e. statistical analysis was performed using adiponectin per birth weight (adiponectin concentration divided by birth weight) instead of adiponectin concentration itself. The finding was almost the same. Therefore, the positive association between F/P weight ratio and adiponectin concentration is not the reflection of association of fetal body weight or adiposity with adiponectin concentration.

The regulation of adiponectin production and secretion have not been well clarified at present. In adults, the serum adiponectin level is paradoxically decreased in obesity (9). In the fetus, on the contrary, umbilical cord adiponectin level is positively associated with fetal birth weight in this study as well as others (15, 16). A recent report has shown that the adiponectin level was significantly lower in large-for-gestation newborns (29); therefore, a negative feedback mechanism between adipose tissue and adiponectin level might be exerted, even in the fetus. The expression of adiponectin in the fetus was recently reported in both white and brown adipose tissue and skeletal and smooth muscle cells (18), and gene expression of adiponectin has been demonstrated in placental tissue (20). A recent report showed that cytokines such as TNF-{alpha}, interferon-{gamma}, IL-6, and leptin differentially modulate placental adiponectin gene expression and secretion and suggest that adiponectin controls energy metabolism at the maternofetal interface (30).

F/P weight ratio is modulated by several factors. For example, it is reported to be decreased in maternal anemia (24, 25), and ratios in diabetes mellitus mothers are also reported to be lower (31). Furthermore, the F/P weight ratio is lower in pregnant women living at high altitudes (27). These findings suggest that the placental size increases to overcome adverse intrauterine circumstances. Other factors reported to be inversely associated with F/P weight ratio are maternal BMI at booking, maternal smoking, female sex, and newborn’s abdominal circumference to head circumference (32). Newborn’s length to head circumference is reported to be positively associated with F/P weight ratio (32).

We do not know why a higher adiponectin level is observed in the cord blood of a large fetus with a relatively smaller placenta or why a lower adiponectin level is observed in the cord blood of a small fetus with a large placenta. We also do not know whether adiponectin is indeed a factor involved in alteration of the F/P weight ratio or the relationship of adiponectin concentration and F/P weight ratio is just an associated phenomenon in a certain intrauterine environment.

The babies of mothers with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus are often heavy for gestational age due to fetal hyperinsulinemia resulting from maternal hyperglycemia. Umbilical cord IGF-I has been shown to be positively associated with fetal growth by other studies as well as the present study (33, 34, 35, 36). In contrast to insulin or IGF-I, adiponectin itself has no mitogenic properties. In this context, we speculate that the positive association of birth weight and adiponectin concentration might be due to augmented insulin sensitivity by adiponectin. Considering the existence of its receptor in the placenta (20), adiponectin might modulate insulin action differentially in the fetus and placenta at the level of its receptor, resulting in a positive association with F/P weight ratio. To further test these hypotheses, we need to evaluate F/P weight ratio and adiponectin concentration in various settings including gestational diabetes mellitus patients in which a low F/P weight ratio is well known (37).

The placenta is a pivotal organ supplying energy, nutrients, water, and oxygen to the fetus through the umbilical cord, and the placenta itself is also an energy-consuming organ. Just as adiponectin concentration is inversely related to the degree of adiposity in adults, adiponectin in the fetus might play a role in facilitating efficient energy consumption from limited placental energy sources by properly augmenting insulin functions.

Several studies have shown the clinical significance of F/P weight ratio. Molteni et al. (21) have shown that the neonate with higher F/P weight ratio has a higher incidence of low Apgar scores. Bonds et al. (38) also reported the association of higher F/P weight ratio and poor perinatal outcome such as low Apgar scores, fetal distress, and hyperbilirubinemia. Barker et al. (39) reported that adult-onset diseases such as cardiovascular diseases or diabetes mellitus originate during the fetal period, and they also have shown that small infants with a large placenta show the highest incidence of developing hypertension later in adult life (28). More recently, Hemachandra et al. (40) reported that the F/P weight ratio is the only anthropometric measure significantly associated with hypertension at age 7 yr in intrauterine growth retardation babies. In this context, it is interesting that adiponectin concentration is also inversely associated with blood pressure in children (41), adolescent females (42), and young men (43), independent of BMI or percent fat mass.

In this paper, we have shown that umbilical serum adiponectin is the first biomarker significantly associated with the weight ratio of the fetus and placenta. Because of its antiatherogenic and antidiabetic properties in adult, the pathophysiological function of adiponectin in fetal development remains to be elucidated.


   Acknowledgments
 
We thank Mr. Kiyoharu Ueda for construction of the database and Miss Mayumi Kitabayashi for excellent secretarial work. We also appreciate Dr. Hiroyuki Hashimoto for thoughtful advice on statistical assessment.


   Footnotes
 
All authors have nothing to declare.

First Published Online October 3, 2006

Abbreviations: BMI, Body mass index; F/P, fetoplacental.

Received December 30, 2005.

Accepted September 27, 2006.


   References
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 Abstract
 Introduction
 Patients and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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S. M. Nelson, D. J. Freeman, N. Sattar, and R. S. Lindsay
Role of Adiponectin in Matching of Fetal and Placental Weight in Mothers With Type 1 Diabetes
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