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The Normal Glucose Tolerance Continuum in Obese Youth: Evidence for Impairment in ß-Cell Function Independent of Insulin Resistance

Department of Pediatrics (C.W.Y., S.E.T., R.W., T.S.B., W.V.T., S.C.), The General Clinical Research Center (J.D.), and the Department of Internal Medicine (R.S.S.) of Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. Sonia Caprio, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, P.O. Box 802064, New Haven, Connecticut 06520. E-mail: Sonia. Caprio{at}yale.edu.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Normal glucose tolerance is expressed over a wide range of glucose concentrations. Whether there is a continuum of risk for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus even when the 2-h plasma glucose is still within this normal range is uncertain. Oral glucose tolerance tests were performed in 407 obese normal glucose tolerance youth (4–20 yr) to examine the relationship between variations in 2-h plasma glucose levels and ß-cell responsiveness. Individuals were grouped by 2-h plasma glucose levels as follows: 1) less than 100 mg/dl, 2) 100–119 mg/dl, and 3) 120–139 mg/dl. Subsequent analysis stratified each 2-h plasma level by insulin sensitivity index. Increased 2-h glucose level was associated with a progressive increase in glucose between 0 and 30 min (P < 0.05). The (0–30 min) insulin did not vary significantly across levels, thus resulting in a decreased insulinogenic index (P < 0.02). This pattern was observed at every level of insulin sensitivity (P < 0.02). These data translated to an unfavorable (leftward) shift in the insulin feedback system for increasing 2-h glucose level (P < 0.005). Increased 2-h plasma glucose within the range of normal glucose tolerance in obese youth is associated with a specific impairment of ß-cell responsiveness distinct from the deterioration of insulin sensitivity.

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE STATUS is traditionally defined by the broad categories of normal and impaired glucose tolerance (NGT and IGT), as well as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), based on the 2-h plasma glucose concentration during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The growing population of obese youth has triggered the alarm for possible progression to the metabolic syndrome, T2DM, and their attendant complications at an early age (1). It is therefore important to identify the clinical indications of the high-risk profile as early as possible in the course of the disease.

Previous work using the glucose clamp techniques revealed that, compared with normal-weight youth, obese children and adolescents exhibit a severe reduction in peripheral insulin sensitivity in response to a standard hyperinsulinemic stimulus and greater insulin secretion in response to a standard hyperglycemic stimulus (2, 3, 4). In addition, we recently validated the Matsuda and DeFronzo (5) whole-body insulin sensitivity index (WBISI) in obese youth, enabling us to show that in a large mixed-ethnic cohort, there is a strong overlap in insulin resistance between many of the NGT and IGT children and adolescents (6). The major distinguishing feature between the severely insulin-resistant IGT and NGT youth was the failure of the ß-cell in the IGT group to increase the early insulin response to the glucose load. Similarly, the loss of ß-cell compensation has been shown in the progression from the NGT to the prediabetic state in adults (7, 8).

By convention, NGT is defined as a plasma glucose level less than 140 mg/dl after a standard oral glucose load. In our multiethnic population of obese youth with NGT, 2-h glucose levels ranged between 60 and 139 mg/dl. Insulin sensitivity and early insulin responses to the glucose load also varied over a large range in these subjects (6). These observations led us to question whether increases in 2-h plasma glucose levels even in the normal range are primarily related to ß-cell dysfunction or insulin resistance. To examine this question, we first divided our large cohort of obese youth with NGT into three strata based on 2-h plasma glucose concentrations. This stratification allowed us to examine the impact of altered insulin responsiveness on the 2-h glucose level in obese children and adolescents in general. Within each stratum, we subdivided the subjects into moderate, low, and very low insulin sensitivity groups to control for the large magnitude changes in overall insulin response with increasing insulin resistance. Importantly, we examined our large cohort of obese youth to see whether even discrete changes in 2-h glucose within the normal range could be detected with the insulin feedback model of glucose tolerance.

	Subjects and Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Study population

The Yale Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Obese Youth Study is a long-term project that is examining early alterations in glucose metabolism in a large mixed-ethnic cohort of obese children and adolescents. The Human Investigations Committee of Yale University School of Medicine approved the study protocol. Written parental consent and child assent were obtained before the study. The volunteers were recruited from our Pediatric Weight Management Clinic. To be eligible for participation, subjects had to be obese (>95th percentile for age and gender) and free of chronic medical conditions not related to the metabolic syndrome or diabetes.

Based on their OGTT results (see methods below), 407 subjects were divided into three strata by their 2-h glucose concentrations: 1) less than 100 mg/dl (<5.55 mmol/liter), 2) 100–119 mg/dl (5.55–6.61 mmol/liter), and 3) 120–139 mg/dl (6.66–7.72 mmol/liter). Demographic data appear in Table 1 by category of 2-h glucose level. For the purpose of controlling for insulin sensitivity, each level of 2-h glucose was further stratified by insulin sensitivity (WBISI). Levels were based on the previously used tertile values (6) [very low, less than 1.44 (n = 127); low, 1.45–2.25 (n = 138); moderate, more than 2.25 (n = 142) (Table 2)] to allow direct comparisons of data with those previously published. (Readers are referred to this publication for consideration of major differences across insulin sensitivity tertiles.)

Subjects were studied in the General Clinical Research Center of Yale University School of Medicine at 0800 h after a 10- to 12-h overnight fast. A standard (1.75 g/kg body weight, up to 75 g) OGTT was performed in all children and adolescents to establish glucose tolerance status. After the local application of a topical anesthetic cream containing 2.5% lidocaine and 2.5% prilocaine, one antecubital iv catheter was inserted for blood sampling and maintained patent by a normal saline drip. Two baseline samples were then obtained at –15 and 0 min for measurements of plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide. Thereafter, the flavored glucose (Orangedex; Custom Laboratories, Baltimore, MD) was given orally, and blood samples were obtained every 30 min for 180 min for the measurements of plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide.

Biochemical analyses

Plasma glucose was determined using a glucose analyzer by the glucose oxidase method (Beckman Instruments, Brea, CA). Plasma insulin was measured by the Linco RIA, which has less than 1% cross-reactivity with C-peptide and proinsulin. Plasma C-peptide was assayed with a Linco RIA kit.

Calculations

Index of insulin sensitivity from the OGTT. The composite WBISI is based on mean values of insulin (µU/ml) and glucose (mg/dl) obtained from the OGTT and the corresponding fasting values, as originally described by Matsuda and DeFronzo (5). We have recently validated this index for use in obese children and adolescents (6).

ß-cell function. The insulinogenic index (IGI), a commonly used index of ß-cell function (9), was calculated from the OGTT data: IGI = insulin (0–30) in µU/ml divided by the glucose (0–30) in mg/dl. In children and adolescents, the IGI is positively correlated with the first-phase insulin response from the hyperglycemic clamp (r = 0.68; P <0.001; Caprio, S., unpublished data). Alternatively, we replaced the change in insulin with the change in C-peptide (pmol/liter) divided by the glucose (mmol/liter). Likewise, the area under the curve for glucose, insulin, and C-peptide were used to represent the incremental response for the entire OGTT. These area-under-the-curve values were obtained by the trapezoid rule.

Insulin feedback system. In this analysis, we use both the hyperbolic insulin feedback curves, which demonstrate the relationship between insulin sensitivity and acute insulin response (10), and the single positional mean data, referred to here as the disposition index. We previously demonstrated using the IGI and WBISI parameters that obese NGT and IGT youth followed the classic insulin feedback model (10, 11) with the IGT youth shifted significantly to the left of the NGT youth (6). We therefore represent the disposition index here as the product of the IGI and WBISI.

Statistical analysis

Group comparisons were made using analysis of covariance. All least-squares means with corresponding 95% confidence intervals and significance tests were estimated with adjustment for sex, race/ethnicity (White, Black, and Hispanic), age, and body mass index (BMI). Planned contrasts with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons were performed to compare across NGT categories or to compare across NGT categories within insulin sensitivity strata. Where appropriate, geometric means are presented for variables that were logarithmically transformed to meet analysis assumptions. Summary hyperbolic feedback curves were compared using linear regression in which the logarithm of the IGI was modeled as a function of the logarithm of the WBISI. The effect of NGT category on these curves was examined by evaluating the main effect of NGT category as well as the interaction of NGT category with WBISI. This analysis was also adjusted for sex, race/ethnicity, age, and BMI. Comparisons of demographic variables were made by ² analysis and ANOVA as appropriate.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
NGT cohort divided by 2-h glucose concentration

Table 1 provides the demographic characteristics for participants and mean 2-h glucose values based on 2-h plasma glucose stratification. Although the absolute level of BMI was significantly different between the lowest and moderate 2-h glucose categories, BMI Z scores were not different between groups.

OGTT data (Fig. 1)

The OGTT temporal data for glucose, insulin, and C-peptide responses are shown in Fig. 1, whereas the early changes in each of these parameters appear alongside. All statistical comparisons were made after adjustment for age, sex, ethnicity, and BMI. The group means for the early (0–30 min) glucose excursion were 36 (33–40), 46 (43–49), and 51 (48–54) mg/dl (translating to changes of 1.99, 2.55, and 2.83 mmol/liter, respectively). Significant differences existed between the less than 100 mg/dl and 120–139 mg/dl 2-h glucose groups (P < 0.001), the less than 100 mg/dl to 100–119 mg/dl groups (P < 0.001), and the 100–119 mg/dl and 120–139 mg/dl groups (P = 0.05). Importantly, insulin and C-peptide responses did not vary between groups.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 1. Glucose, insulin, and C-peptide concentrations during the OGTT for each level of 2-h glucose (left) and (0–30 min) for glucose, insulin, and C-peptide (right). Data are expressed as least-squares means and 95% confidence intervals (adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and BMI). The early glucose response was significantly greater with increasing 2-h glucose level (*, P < 0.001 compared with lowest 2-h glucose; , P = 0.05 for moderate to high 2-h glucose comparison). No difference between groups was observed for early insulin or C-peptide. Systeme International unit for glucose is mmol/liter (conversion factor, 0.05551); for insulin, pmol/liter (conversion factor, 6.0).

Insulin feedback system (Fig. 2)

To evaluate ß-cell function, we examined the ratio of the initial change (0–30 min) in insulin (or C-peptide) to that of plasma glucose (insulinogenic index). The IGI tended to decrease (P = 0.06) from the lowest to the moderate level of 2-h glucose and significantly decreased from the lowest to the highest 2-h glucose category (P < 0.02).

View larger version (11K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 2. Relationship between ß-cell function (IGI) (top) and insulin sensitivity (WBISI) (middle) as a function of 2-h glucose category. Data are expressed as least-squares means and 95% confidence intervals (adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and BMI). For comparisons made between the lowest and more elevated 2-h glucose levels: *, P 0.02; , P < 0.05 for moderate to high 2-h glucose levels. The net response on the insulin feedback system was a decrease in disposition index (bottom) at each level of increasing 2-h glucose category (*, P < 0.01 for all comparisons).

We found that both IGI and insulin sensitivity components of the insulin feedback system changed across 2-h glucose categories. Further inspection of the cohort, however, revealed a wide range of insulin sensitivities within each category of 2-h glucose. We therefore examined the same parameters with the added control of insulin sensitivity to determine whether the same deterioration in the insulin feedback system would persist at each level of insulin sensitivity.

NGT cohort by 2-h glucose concentration with the additional stratification by insulin sensitivity

The demographic breakdown for the more complex stratification appears in Table 2. Age, sex, ethnicity, and BMI and BMI Z scores did not vary significantly within each insulin sensitivity stratum. Each level of insulin sensitivity had obese youth corresponding to each of the different levels of 2-h glucose, although the less than 100 mg/dl category had a much lower representation in the very low insulin sensitivity stratum.

OGTT data (Table 3)

Fasting (0 min), early glucose, insulin, and C-peptide responses (0–30 min) from the OGTT are presented in Table 3. Fasting values did not differ significantly within each level of insulin sensitivity. However, the early increase in glucose (0–30 min) was significantly greater between the highest and lowest 2-h glucose categories in each insulin sensitivity stratum (P <0.01 for all comparisons). In addition, the 30-min glucose increased from the lowest to moderate 2-h glucose categories in the most insulin-sensitive stratum (P = 0.006). The initial increase in glucose was accompanied by an increased insulin (or C-peptide) response within each insulin sensitivity stratum. It is important to note that, although not significant, the general trend was a decrease in early insulin, not an increase, as would be expected if the insulin feedback system were attempting to compensate for the higher glucose levels.

Insulin feedback system (Fig. 3)

The stratification by level of insulin sensitivity accomplished the overall control for level of WBISI; however, there were slight decreases in values as 2-h glucose increased for each strata of insulin sensitivity (Table 2). As shown in Fig. 3, the calculated IGI was markedly reduced between the less than 100 mg/dl and 120–139 mg/dl 2-h glucose categories in each strata of insulin sensitivity (P < 0.05 for all comparisons). The most insulin-sensitive group also had a significant decrease in IGI from the lowest to moderate 2-h glucose categories (P = 0.002). The combined effect on the insulin feedback system was to decrease the disposition index between the less than 100 and 120–139 mg/dl 2-h glucose categories similarly at every level of insulin sensitivity (P < 0.01 for all comparisons). Likewise, the lowest and moderate 2-h glucose categories were different in the most insulin-sensitive stratum (P < 0.001).

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 3. ß-Cell function and disposition index as a function of insulin sensitivity level. Data are expressed as least-squares means and 95% confidence intervals (adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and BMI). All groups showed a similar pattern of reduction with increasing 2-h glucose irrespective of insulin sensitivity, for the IGI (top) between the less than 100 mg/dl and 120–139 mg/dl glucose categories (*, P < 0.05 for all comparisons). The disposition index (bottom) revealed a decrement from less than 100 to 120–139 mg/dl categories in all insulin sensitivity categories (*, P < 0.01 for all comparisons).

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 4. Summary hyperbolic feedback curves constructed from all participants grouped by 2-h glucose category. Feedback curves were compared using linear regression in which the logarithm of the IGI was modeled as a function of the logarithm of the WBISI. There was a significant leftward shift (toward IGT) in the insulin feedback curve for increasing 2-h glucose category. This leftward shift remained significant after adjustment for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and BMI. Group comparisons: less than 100 mg/dl to 100–119 mg/dl, P < 0.001; less than 100 mg/dl to 120–139 mg/dl, P < 0.001; and 100–119 mg/dl to 120–139 mg/dl, P = 0.03.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

In this study we examined the importance of the early insulin response on 2-h glucose levels at the other end of the glucose tolerance spectrum, namely, obese youth with NGT. The use of the OGTT in this investigation allowed us to examine a large number of subjects both to facilitate the subdivision by NGT status and to further stratify by the level of insulin sensitivity. It is noteworthy that the two NGT groups with higher 2-h glucose levels were on average more insulin resistant than the group with the lowest glucose levels.

At first glance, the 2-h glucose category data suggest that worsening insulin resistance may contribute to early deterioration in oral glucose tolerance. On further analysis, however, insulin secretion, as reflected by the IGI, appears to have a strong impact on glucose tolerance (albeit still normal), irrespective of insulin sensitivity. As illustrated in Fig. 3, at any level of insulin sensitivity (WBISI), the IGI was lowest in the group with the highest 2-h glucose level. The same result is obtained if C-peptide replaces insulin in the equation. These data provide support for the notion that even obese youth with NGT who are more insulin sensitive can have a perturbed ß-cell response to a normal physiological stimulus (glucose ingestion). Interestingly, this pattern of ß-cell dysfunction could be replicated if fasting insulin tertiles were used in place of the WBISI strata (highest insulin tertile corresponding to lowest WBISI tertile). Furthermore, these data emphasize that it is important to know both insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity information, a topic recently reviewed by Ahren and Pacini (16).

Obese youth typically have a large increase in their first-phase insulin response (hyperglycemic clamp technique) compared with nonobese controls because of their increased insulin resistance (2, 4). The insulin response to the hyperglycemic clamp can be further augmented by ingestion of glucose (17). In this investigation all subjects were obese youth; therefore, when viewed as a single group, they manifested a large insulin response and were in general insulin resistant. These data fit within the normal context of the insulin feedback system, which represents the response from the ß-cells to secrete more insulin as a function of decreased peripheral insulin sensitivity (10, 11). The large-magnitude insulin response between insulin sensitivity strata, observed here and previously (6), highlight the extent of adaptation to ambient insulin resistance and, therefore, the need to control for this overriding factor.

The decrease in disposition index with increasing 2-h glucose concentration was primarily accounted for by the inability of the ß-cells to respond promptly and adequately during the oral glucose challenge. These observations are in accordance with the recent data from both the San Antonio metabolism (SAM) study in lean and obese adults (primarily Mexican-American) (18) and the American Diabetes Association Genetics of Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes (GENNID) study in first-degree relatives of type 2 diabetes of mixed ethnic background (19). In the SAM study, the investigators observed a similar decrease in ß-cell response at levels of 2-h glucose corresponding to more than 100 mg/dl. When their data were adjusted for differences in insulin sensitivity, they determined that the decreased ß-cell response was occurring irrespective of obesity. In the GENNID study, Jensen and colleagues (19) demonstrated a reduced IGI as glucose tolerance worsened when adjusted for the homeostasis assessment model for insulin resistance. This finding was also observed within the NGT participants based on a higher than median glucose response to the OGTT. A low disposition index has been identified in a prospective study in adults to have predictive value for worsening glucose tolerance (20).

Similar to our findings, the GENNID study data also showed perturbed ß-cell function, adjusted for insulin resistance, across all ethnic groups. Our population of youth represent a growing population of obese children and adolescents (1) at high risk for abnormal glucose tolerance (21). Given both the diverse age and body composition represented in the adult populations from both the SAM and GENNID studies, it is likely that the same pattern of ß-cell dysfunction would exist even for nonobese youth, e.g. first-degree relatives of T2DM. However, screening of pediatric populations in general has been very limited.

Although the mechanism underlying the hyperbolic relationship between insulin secretion and insulin resistance is still unknown, several factors have been proposed to explain the inadequate ß-cell response in subjects with altered glucose tolerance: ß-cell mass, glucose sensitivity, and rate sensitivity. One hypothesis regarding the response of the pancreas to insulin resistance is that ß-cell mass increases as an adaptive mechanism to increase overall insulin secretion, thus overcoming peripheral insulin resistance. For example, Butler and colleagues (22) demonstrated that a high ß-cell mass is evident in obese nondiabetic individuals, whereas it is reduced in patients with T2DM. A finding consistent with the potential for increased ß-cell mass is the large adaptive hyperinsulinemia observed across insulin sensitivity strata (we observed greater than a 2.5-fold increase in insulin response over the range of insulin sensitivity levels in these obese youth). This adaptive hyperinsulinemia was particularly noteworthy given the apparent inability of individuals within a given insulin sensitivity level to augment insulin secretion to accommodate elevated glucose concentrations (increased 2-h glucose category). This observation is consistent with results obtained from using multiple methods for quantifying insulin secretion (23).

Two of the factors, glucose sensitivity and rate sensitivity (response to change in glucose), are components of the IGI used here as the surrogate for ß-cell function. Modeling performed by Ferrannini and colleagues (24) recently demonstrated that individuals with IGT (vs. normal controls) had reduced glucose sensitivity, whereas rate sensitivity was unaltered. Because we observed no change or a decrease in the initial insulin response, despite a wide range of resulting glucose concentrations across the NGT spectrum, the ß-cell sensitivity to glucose may be impaired even in young obese NGT individuals. Controlling for the overall magnitude of the insulin response by examining the data by level of insulin sensitivity served to further strengthen the general interpretation that the deficient ß-cell response is consistent with impaired glucose sensitivity.

The net result from our data would indicate that insulin resistance is likely a necessary component for large-magnitude changes in insulin secretory response to a glucose load, whatever the mechanism for adaptive plasticity within the ß-cells to increase insulin secretion. This concept fits within the general framework of the hyperbolic feedback curves (10, 16). We identified a systematic leftward shift in each hyperbolic curve (Fig. 4) as glucose increased across 2-h glucose categories toward IGT. This demonstrates that the hyperbolic model for glucose tolerance can distinguish even finer levels of perturbation in glucose homeostasis besides the traditional broad categories of NGT, IGT, and T2DM.

In summary, increased 2-h glucose concentrations during an OGTT in NGT obese youth reflect the apparent inability of the pancreatic ß-cells to fully compensate for early increases in glucose. We observed the same pattern of dysfunction at every level of insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, we determined that the insulin feedback curves were sensitive enough to identify differences in 2-h glucose level even in the NGT range. Consequently, in obese children and adolescents, the transition from NGT to IGT and ultimately T2DM more likely represents a gradual deterioration in glucose-stimulated insulin response rather than a threshold effect or an all-or-none phenomenon.

	Acknowledgments

 
We are particularly grateful to all the children and adolescents who participated in the OGTT studies. We thank the nursing staff, especially Karin Allen and Melinda Lopes, and the research staff of the Yale University School of Medicine General Clinical Research Center and Core Laboratory for their excellent care of subjects and professional assistance during the studies.

	Footnotes

 
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health (NIH) Grants RO1-HD40787 and RO1-HD28016 (S.C.), the Stephen I. Morse Pediatric Diabetes Research Fund (R.W.), and NIH Grants MO1-RR00125 and MO1-RR06022. S.C. is a recipient of a K24 HD 01464 Award for Patient-Oriented Research.

First Published Online November 2, 2004

Abbreviations: BMI, Body mass index; GENNID, Genetics of Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes; IGI, insulinogenic index; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; NGT, normal glucose tolerance; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; SAM, San Antonio metabolism; WBISI, whole-body insulin sensitivity index.

Received June 30, 2004.

Accepted October 25, 2004.

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