This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a related Letter to the Editor Purchase Article View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Copyright Permission Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Rickenlund, A. Articles by Hirschberg, A. L. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Rickenlund, A. Articles by Hirschberg, A. L.

Effects of Oral Contraceptives on Body Composition and Physical Performance in Female Athletes

Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology (A.R., K.C., B.v.S., A.L.H.) and Radiology (T.B.B.), Karolinska University Hospital; and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute (B.E.), SE-17176 Stockholm, Sweden

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. Anette Rickenlund, Research Laboratory for Reproductive Health, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, C4-U1, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-17176 Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: anette.rickenlund{at}kus.se.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Menstrual disturbances are common among female athletes, and oral contraceptives (OCs) are often recommended as estrogen substitution. However, there is little information about the effects of OC use in athletes, and there is great concern that OCs might impair physical performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of OC use on body composition and physical performance in female athletes. Twenty-six endurance athletes (13 with oligo-/amenorrhea and 13 regularly menstruating athletes) and 12 sedentary controls were examined before and after 10 months of treatment with a low dose, monophasic, combined OC. Significant changes in body composition were recorded in the athletes, but not in the controls. There was an increase in weight and fat mass only in athletes with oligo-/amenorrhea. These changes were associated with a decrease in ovarian androgens. OC treatment also increased bone mineral density, with the largest increase in athletes with a low bone mineral density at baseline. Despite significant changes in body composition, little impact on physical performance was recorded. We have demonstrated that OC treatment in female athletes has predominantly beneficial effects on body composition without adverse effects on physical performance and could be used for the prevention of osteoporosis in athletic amenorrhea. However, it cannot be excluded that a marked increase in fat mass might have unfavorable effects for athletic performance in individual women.

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES (OC) are used by numerous women all over the world. Although the main purpose is birth control, OCs are also frequently used for medical treatment, e.g. in women with long-standing amenorrhea. Circulating estrogen levels are known to be important to maintain bone mass, and limited data suggest that modern low dose OCs prevent bone loss in premenopausal women (1, 2, 3). However, there are also studies reporting no beneficial effect (4, 5, 6). OCs are generally well tolerated, but some women experience side effects, such as headache, nausea, breast tenderness, and weight gain (7, 8). These side effects are of great clinical importance because they often lead to discontinuation of treatment. Young women may be especially concerned about weight gain (9). Despite extensive clinical experience, many metabolic effects of OC treatment remain to be explored. Changes in appetite and weight are known to occur in some women, but the association with treatment is unclear. There are only a few studies evaluating body composition during OC treatment, and these show no significant change in body weight or body fat (10, 11, 12).

The questions about weight gain and metabolic effects of OCs are of particular relevance to female athletes, because a change in body composition could have a negative impact on physical performance. Menstrual disturbances are common among female athletes, especially in endurance sports, and have been associated with insufficient dietary intake (13, 14). Long-standing amenorrhea and estrogen deficiency are associated with increased bone resorption and osteoporosis, particularly of trabecular bone, such as in the spine (15, 16, 17, 18). Menstrual disturbances in athletes are also related to an increased incidence of stress fractures (19). Eating disorders, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis are related medical conditions and have been referred to as the female athlete triad (20, 21). This triad is currently considered a most serious medical problem in female elite sport. Although the need for treatment of estrogen deficiency may be apparent in amenorrheic athletes, there is virtually no information about the effects of OC on bone mass and body composition (22). Furthermore, few studies have investigated the effect of OC use on physical performance. There are reports on reduced maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) associated with short-term use of OC (23, 24), whereas other studies have failed to confirm a negative effect of OCs in performance tests (25, 26). Within the world of sports there is a great demand for more knowledge about the effects of OC use on body composition and physical performance.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether OC use affects body composition and physical performance in female athletes. Endurance athletes with and without menstrual disturbances and sedentary controls were investigated before and after an average of 10 months of OC use.

	Subjects and Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Subjects

Female athletes in endurance sports were recruited from universities and high schools specializing in sports and in connection with public sports events and championships. The inclusion criteria were as follows: age, 16–35 yr; body mass index (BMI), 18–24; nullipara; healthy; and nonsmoking. Endurance training criteria were defined as a minimum of 6 h of aerobic weight-bearing training or a minimum of 70 km of running or 6 h of specific endurance training weekly. Age- and BMI-matched controls with the same inclusion criteria as athletes were recruited from universities and high schools and from hospital staff at Karolinska Hospital. They were restricted to 1 h of light aerobic training a week. Information about menstrual status (amenorrhea, no bleeding for the last 3 months; oligomenorrhea, periods at intervals exceeding 6 wk; and regular monthly periods) was provided by the subjects. No medications were allowed. Intake of minerals/vitamins or nutritional supplements was accepted. Three groups of women characterized on the basis of endurance training and menstrual status and matched for age and BMI were studied: 13 athletes with amenorrhea (8) or oligomenorrhea (5), 13 regularly menstruating athletes, and 12 sedentary regularly menstruating controls.

Experimental design

The women were examined before and after 10 months of treatment with a low dose, monophasic, combined OC (30 µg ethinyl estradiol and 150 µg levonorgestrel on d 1–21, followed by a hormone- and tablet-free interval on d 22–28). Subjects with irregular menstruation underwent gynecological examination and assessment of the degree of menstrual disturbance before treatment. Regularly menstruating subjects were examined in the early follicular phase (menstrual cycle d 1–5) before OC treatment, and all subjects were examined at the end of a treatment cycle during OC. The women were examined in the morning, starting at 0730 h, at the Women’s Health Clinical Research Unit, Karolinska University Hospital. Body weight, height, and blood pressure were recorded, and general health condition was examined. Fasting blood samples were collected from a peripheral vein in a resting state. After centrifugation of blood samples, sera were stored at –20 C until assayed.

Endocrine assays

Serum concentrations of testosterone (T), SHBG, and corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) were determined with RIA in untreated serum, using commercial kits obtained from Diagnostic Products Corp. (Los Angeles, CA; Coat-a-Count Testosterone), Eurodiagnostics AB (Malmo, Sweden; SHBG), and Medgenix Diagnostics SA (Fleurus, Belgium; CBG) according to the manufacturers’ protocols. Serum levels of 4-androstene-3,17-dione (A-4) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) were determined after extraction with diethyl ether by radioimmunological methods, the details of which have been given previously (27). In the assay of DHEAS, the conjugate was cleaved by thermal hydrolysis before extraction.

Serum levels of IGF-I were determined by RIA after acid-ethanol extraction with a commercial kit from Nichols Institute (San Capistrano, CA). The levels are expressed as micrograms per liter of WHO First International Reference Reagent IGF-I 87/518 (1988). Serum insulin was determined by RIA, using a commercial kit obtained from Pharmacia Biotech (Uppsala, Sweden), and was expressed as milliinternational units per liter of WHO International Reference Preparation 66/304. Serum levels of estradiol, cortisol, TSH, free T₄ (fT4), and free T₃ (fT3) were determined by time-resolved fluorescence immunoassay, using commercial kits from Wallac Oy (Turku, Finland; Autodelfia). The concentration of TSH was expressed as milliunits per liter of Second TSH International Reference Preparation 80/558. Osteocalcin was resolved in a solid phase immunoradiometric assay (CIS Biointernational, Gif-sur-Yvette, France; Elsa-Osteo).

Detection limits and within- and between-assay coefficients of variation were: for T, 0.1 nmol/liter, 6%, and 10%; for SHBG, 0.05 nmol/liter, 4%, and 8%; for CBG, 0.3 mg/liter, 4%, and 6%; for A-4, 0.6 nmol/liter, 6%, and 10%; for DHEAS, 200 nmol /liter, 8%, and 12%; for IGF-I, 6 µg/liter, 5%, and 7%; for insulin, 2 mIU/liter, 6%, and 6%; for estradiol, 50 pmol/liter, 5%, and 8%; for cortisol, 15 nmol/liter, 4%, and 5%; for TSH, 0.005 mU/liter, 3%, and 5%; for fT₄, 2 pmol/liter, 5%, and 4%; for fT₃, 2 pmol/liter, 9%, and 5%; and for osteocalcin, 0.4 ng/ml, 4%, and 5%, respectively.

Apparent concentrations of free T were calculated from values of total T, SHBG, and a fixed albumin concentration of 40 g/liter by successive approximation using a computer program based on an equation derived from the law of mass action (28). Apparent concentrations of free cortisol were calculated from cortisol and CBG values using a formula derived from the law of mass action, as specified by the manufacturer of the CBG kit.

Body composition

Bone mineral density (BMD; grams per square centimeter) and lean and fat masses were determined for the whole body with dual energy x-ray absorptiometry measurements using DPX-L equipment (Lunar Corp., Madison, WI). From the whole body dual energy x-ray absorptiometry measurement, the spinal BMD was determined. The spinal region comprised the lower part of the cervical spine, the thoracic, and most of the lumbar spine (approximately L1–L4). The Lunar software automatically calculates the amount of fat in trunk and legs. The limit between the leg and trunk regions was defined as the line drawn from the upper margin of the iliac crest through the femoral neck. As an estimate of the upper/lower fat mass ratio, we determined the trunk/leg fat mass ratio. The reproducibility of the whole body BMD is calculated as less than 0.01 g/cm² or 0.1 x SD (29, 30).

Physical performance

Endurance capacity and strength were assessed between 1030 and 1500 h at Karolinska Institute, more than 2 h after a light meal. VO₂ max and pulmonary ventilation were determined while the subjects ran on a motor-driven treadmill (Cardionics AB, Stockholm, Sweden), using the leveling-off criterion (31). The running test started with a warm-up period at 9 km/h and 0° elevation. After 4 min, the speed was increased to 10 km/h with 2° of elevation. One minute later, speed was increased to 12 km/h. Thereafter, speed was increased by 1 km/h every minute up to 15 km/h, followed by an elevation of 1° every minute until the subject became exhausted. The total work-time from the start of warm-up to the end of running was used as a measure of physical performance. During the test, the subject breathed through a mouthpiece and valve system. Expired air was sampled in Douglas bags. The volume of air was measured in a Tissot spirometer (W. E. Collins, Inc., Braintree, MA), and oxygen and carbon dioxide contents were determined with a Beckman analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, CA).

Endurance was also evaluated using a multistage progressive shuttle-run test, the beep test (32, 33, 34), intended to reflect overall performance, including balance and litheness. All tests were performed on a hard synthetic surface in an indoor sports arena. Subjects ran between two lines, 20 m apart, synchronized with beeping signals emitted from an audiocassette. The time interval between sound signals decreased every minute. The test was terminated when the subjects could no longer follow the set pace and failed to reach the target line on three consecutive occasions.

Heart rate was measured with a Polar Sport Tester PE 3000 during treadmill running and beep test. Blood samples, from a prewarmed fingertip, were taken for determination of the blood lactate concentration within 1 min after exercise and were analyzed (YSI 2300, YSI, Inc., Yellow Spring, OH). The rate of overall perceived exertion was evaluated using the Borg scale (35).

Isometric extension of the legs was measured in a chair individually calibrated to obtain optimal position of the subjects with their feet and back fixed at a knee angle of 90°. Two pressure-sensitive footplates recorded a pressure curve and measured the maximum amplitude. The best of four trials was registered. Isometric handgrip strength was measured in both hands, using a grip dynamometer (Cardionics AB, Stockholm, Sweden). The best of three trials in the strongest hand was noted.

Statistical analysis

Values are given as the arithmetic mean and SD. Differences within and between groups were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA with one within factor (OC treatment) and one between factor (groups). Post hoc analyses were performed using Tukey’s highest significant difference test. For the within effects, a paired t test was used, with P values adjusted for multiple comparisons. Correlations were assessed using Pearson’s coefficient of correlation or Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient according to distribution. The software used were Statistica 6.1 (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK) and SAS System 8.2 (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC).

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Data pertaining to age and physical and training characteristics for the two groups of athletes with and without menstrual disturbances and for sedentary controls are presented in Table 1. Age at menarche was higher in the oligo-/amenorrheic athletes than in the regularly menstruating athletes. Estradiol levels were not significantly different between groups, although the group of athletes with menstrual disturbances had the lowest values (athletes with oligomenorrhea, 29.4 ± 13.5; regularly menstruating athletes, 34.6 ± 12.9; sedentary regularly menstruating controls, 47.5 ± 17.4 pg/ml). The conversion factor to Systeme International units (picomoles per liter) is 3.7. Of the 13 oligo-/amenorrheic athletes, the majority (n = 10) displayed low levels of gonadotropins with FSH and/or LH levels below 5 IU/liter, indicating that the menstrual disturbance due to hypothalamic inhibition. Two of the five athletes with oligomenorrhea were considered hyperandrogenic based on an increased ratio of LH/FSH (>2) and an increased ratio of testosterone/SHBG (>0.05) (32). One amenorrheic athlete had levels of gonadotropins, T, and SHBG within the normal range.

Levels of hormones and binding proteins before and during OC treatment in the two groups of athletes and controls are shown in Table 2. In all three groups, serum levels of total and free T and A-4 were markedly decreased, and SHBG was increased during OC treatment. However, levels of DHEAS were significantly lower in the athlete group with menstrual disturbance before treatment and remained unchanged during OC use, whereas the DHEAS levels in controls decreased. During OC treatment, serum levels of cortisol and CBG increased, whereas free cortisol and the free T/free cortisol ratio decreased in all groups. Prolactin levels were significantly lower in the athlete group with menstrual disturbance at baseline and increased during treatment, in contrast to those in regularly menstruating groups. Concentrations of fT₄ and fT₃ were lowest in the oligo-/amenorrheic athletes before treatment, with no significant change, whereas regularly menstruating subjects showed a decrease in thyroid hormones. TSH levels were unchanged by OC treatment in all three groups. The athlete groups displayed a significant decrease in osteocalcin with OC use. Oligo-/amenorrheic athletes had the lowest osteocalcin levels during treatment, which were significantly lower than control values (P < 0.05).

Variables of body composition before and during OC treatment in the two groups of athletes and controls are given in Table 3. Athletes with menstrual disturbances displayed highly significant changes in body composition after OC treatment, whereas most of these variables remained unchanged in the regularly menstruating athletes, and no change in body composition was recorded in the controls. There were significant increases in weight and fat mass only in the oligo-/amenorrheic athlete group. Total BMD was also significantly increased in women with oligo-/amenorrhea. For those with regular menstruation, athletes and controls, no such effect was recorded. However, BMD in the legs was increased in regularly menstruating athletes. Lean body mass was unchanged in all groups. Figure 1 demonstrates that the oligo-/amenorrheic athletes had the lowest fat mass and BMD before OC and displayed the largest increase in weight, total fat mass, and total BMD.

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 1. Effects of combined OC use on weight, percent fat mass, and total BMD in oligo-/amenorrheic athletes (OAM), regularly menstruating athletes (RM), and sedentary controls (CTR). Oligo-/amenorrheic athletes increased significantly in weight (**, P < 0.01), percent fat mass (**, P < 0.01), and total BMD (*, P < 0.05), whereas regularly menstruating athletes and controls showed no change in these variables.

Physical performance values before and during OC treatment in the two groups of athletes and controls are shown in Table 4. There were highly significant differences between athletes and sedentary controls in almost all physical performance and physiological parameters measured at baseline. Most of these variables were unchanged by OC treatment in both athletes and controls. Thus, there were no changes in endurance assessed by VO₂ max and rate of perceived dyspnea-exertion. However, for the oligo-/amenorrheic group, there was a 6% decline in performance levels using the beep test.

There was a significant negative correlation between the total fat mass (percentage) before OC and the change in fat mass during OC in all subjects (r = –0.43; P < 0.01). The change in A-4 levels was negatively correlated with the change in weight and BMI in both athletes (r_s = –0.49, P < 0.05 and r_s = –0.50, P < 0.05, respectively) and controls (r_s = –0.76, P < 0.05 and r_s = –0.71, P < 0.05, respectively). In all subjects there was also a negative correlation between the decline in levels of free T and the changes in weight, BMI, and total fat mass (r_s = –0.35, P < 0.05; r_s = –0.36, P < 0.05; and r_s = –0.34, P < 0.05, respectively). There was no correlation between the increase in total fat mass and the decline in beep test performance in the oligo-/amenorrheic group (r = 0.00). In the athlete groups, there was a highly significant negative correlation between total BMD before OC and the change in BMD during OC (r = –0.51; P < 0.01), but this association was not found in the controls (r = –0.17; Fig. 2). The change in BMD spine was negatively correlated with the change in osteocalcin levels among the athletes (r_s = –0.41; P < 0.05), but not in the controls (r_s = –0.18).

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 2. Correlation between total BMD before OC and the change in BMD during OC use in the athlete groups and controls. There was a significant negative correlation in the athletes (r = –0.51; P < 0.01), but not in the controls (r = –0.17).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

The hormonal effects of OC treatment were quite similar between the athlete groups and controls. Nevertheless, marked changes in body composition were recorded only among the oligo-/amenorrheic athletes. In this group the mean body weight increase was 2.4 kg after 10 months of OC treatment. The increase in body weight was mainly caused by an increase in body fat, and there was no change in lean body mass. As expected, oligo-/amenorrheic athletes had the lowest amount of body fat before treatment. During treatment, there was an increase in both upper and lower body fat in the oligo-/amenorrheic athletes. Athletic amenorrhea and estrogen deficiency is well known to reflect energy deficiency (13, 14). Within the groups of athletes, the largest increase in weight and body fat was found in women with menstrual disturbances. There was also an association between low fat mass at baseline and a larger increase in body fat during OC use.

Sex steroids have been shown to interfere with appetite and metabolic functions. Estradiol inhibits feeding in animals (36), whereas high dose progestins are appetite stimulating (37). OCs may also decrease insulin sensitivity, and the effect on carbohydrate metabolism has been attributed to the progestin component (38). Furthermore, sex steroids may exert metabolic effects in adipose tissue. In postmenopausal women oral administration of estrogen was found to reduce postprandial lipid oxidation and increase fat mass (39). In this study we found the increase in weight and fat mass to be associated with the decline in androgen levels, but no associations were found with the other hormonal changes. Although endogenous androgens are related to abdominal obesity (40), exogenous androgen treatment has been shown to reduce body fat and weight in postmenopausal women (41). The precise mechanisms responsible for the increases in weight and body fat during OC treatment remain to be elucidated.

Amenorrhea and a hypogonadal state are common among female endurance athletes (13, 14). Increased bone resorption, in particular, loss of trabecular bone, constitutes a serious consequence of this condition (15, 16, 17, 18). Menstrual disturbances in athletes are also related to an increase in musculoskeletal injuries and a 2- to 4-fold higher risk of stress fractures (19). In clinical practice, OC treatment is often recommended to prevent bone loss during conditions of estrogen deficiency, but data on the effects of OCs in athletes have been lacking (22). In this study we found a small, but significant, increase in total BMD in oligo-/amenorrheic athletes after a relatively short treatment period. Those athletes with low BMD at baseline were found to gain the most from treatment. No effects on bone mass were found among sedentary controls. These findings may explain why some studies failed to demonstrate beneficial effects of OC use on bone mass (4, 5, 6). The apparent inhibition of bone turnover after estrogen/progestin replacement was illustrated by the inverse correlation between serum levels of osteocalcin and BMD of the spine in the athletes. To some extent the effects on bone mass could relate to weight-bearing exercise, because a positive effect on leg BMD was recorded in the regularly menstruating athletes.

Despite significant changes in body composition caused by OC treatment in athletes, little impact on physical performance was recorded. Thus, different endurance tests were largely unchanged during treatment. These are important findings, because within the world of sports there is great concern that OCs might impair physical performance. Our results are in agreement with previous findings in nonathletes, in whom no change in functional aerobic capacity was recorded during short-term use of OC (25, 26), but there are also data to suggest reduced VO₂ max during OC treatment (23, 24). From our results, we conclude that, in general, OCs can be recommended to athletes. However, we found a slight decline in overall performance, assessed by the beep test, for the oligo-/amenorrheic group. Although this finding was not related to the gain in fat mass, it cannot be excluded that a pronounced increase in fat mass might have unfavorable effects for athletic performance, particularly in such endurance sports where coordination is crucial.

In summary, we have demonstrated that OCs in female athletes have primarily beneficial effects on body composition without adverse effects on physical performance. OC treatment significantly increased BMD, particularly in those with low BMD at baseline, and could therefore be recommended to prevent bone loss in athletes with long-standing amenorrhea and estrogen deficiency.

	Acknowledgments

 
We thank Berit Legerstam, Carina Levelind, Anne-Britt Olrog, Shirley Karlén, Ingegerd Svensson, Dr. Kristina Gemzell, and Dr. Lena Marions for skillful technical assistance.

	Footnotes

 
This work was supported by the Swedish Medical Research Council (Grants 05982 and 13142), the Center for Sports Research, and Karolinska Institute.

First Published Online August 24, 2004

Abbreviations: A-4, 4-Androstene-3,17-dione; BMD, bone mineral density; BMI, body mass index; CBG, corticosteroid-binding globulin; DHEAS, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; fT₃, free T₃; fT₄, free T₄; OC, oral contraceptive; T, testosterone; VO₂ max, maximal oxygen uptake.

Received July 31, 2003.

Accepted May 27, 2004.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Subjects and Methods Results Discussion References

 

1. Kuohung W, Borgatta L, Stubblefield P 2000 Low-dose oral contraceptives and bone mineral density: an evidence-based analysis. Contraception 61:77–82[CrossRef][Medline]
2. Pasco JA, Kotowicz MA, Henry MJ, Panahu S, Seeman E, Nicholson GC 2000 Oral contraceptives and bone mineral density: a population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:265–269[CrossRef][Medline]
3. Berenson AB, Radecki CM, Grady JJ, Rickert VI, Thomas A 2001 A prospective, controlled study of the effects of hormonal contraception on bone mineral density. Obstet Gynecol 98:576–582[Abstract/Free Full Text]
4. Perrotti M, Bahamondes L, Petta C, Castro S 2001 Forearm bone density in long-term users of oral combined contraceptives and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Fertil Steril 76:469–473[CrossRef][Medline]
5. Wanichsetakul P, Kamudhamas A, Watanaruangkovit P, Siripakarn Y, Visutakul P 2002 Bone mineral density at various anatomic bone sites in women receiving combined oral contraceptives and depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. Contraception 65:407–410[CrossRef][Medline]
6. Prior JC, Kirkland SA, Joseph L, Kreiger N, Murray TM, Hanley DA, Adachi JD, Vigna YM, Berger C, Blondeau L, Jackson SA, Tenenhouse A 2001 Oral contraceptive use and bone mineral density in premenopausal women; cross-sectional, population-based data from the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study. CMAJ 165:1023–1029[Abstract/Free Full Text]
7. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 1992 Safety of oral contraceptives for teenagers. J Adolesc Health 13:333–336[Medline]
8. Endrikat J, Jaques MA, Mayerhofer M, Pelissier C, Müller U, Düsterberg B 1995 A twelve-month comparative clinical investigation of two low-dose oral contraceptives containing 20 µg ethinylestradiol/75 µg gestodene and 20 µg ethinylestradiol/150 µg desogestrel, with respect to efficacy, cycle control and tolerance. Contraception 52:229–235[CrossRef][Medline]
9. Emans SJ, Grace E, Woods ER, Smith DE, Klein K, Merola J 1987 Adolescents’ compliance with the use of oral contraceptives. JAMA 257:3377–3381[Abstract]
10. Reubinoff BE, Grubstein A, Meirow D, Berry E, Schenker JG, Brzezinski A 1995 Effects of low-dose estrogen oral contraceptives on weight, body composition, and fat distribution in young women. Fertil Steril 63:516–521[Medline]
11. Franchini M, Caruso C, Nigrelli S, Poggiali C 1995 Evaluation of body composition during low-dose estrogen oral contraceptives treatment. Acta Eur Fertil 26:69–73[Medline]
12. Lloyd T, Lin HM, Matthews AE, Bentley CM, Legro RS 2002 Oral contraceptive use by teenage women does not affect body composition. Obstet Gynecol 100:235–239[Abstract/Free Full Text]
13. Warren MP, Perlroth NE 2001 The effects of intense exercise on the female reproductive system. J Endocrinol 170:3–11[Abstract]
14. Loucks AB 2001 Physical health of the female athlete: observation, effects and causes of reproductive disorders. Can J Appl Physiol 26(Suppl):S176–S185
15. Drinkwater BL, Nilsson K, Chesnut III CH, Bremner WJ, Shainholtz S, Southworth MB 1984 Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. N Engl J Med 311:277–281[Abstract]
16. Bennel KL, Malcolm SA, Wark JD, Brukner PD 1997 Skeletal effects of menstrual disturbances in athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports 7:261–273[Medline]
17. Tomten SE, Falch JA, Birkeland KI, Hemmersbach P, Hostmark AT 1998 Bone mineral density and menstrual irregularities. A comparative study on cortical and trabecular bone structures in runners with alleged normal eating behavior. Int J Sports Med 19:92–97[Medline]
18. Pettersson U, Stålnacke B-M, Ahlénius G-M, Henriksson-Larsén K, Lorentzon R 1999 Low bone mass density at multiple skeletal sites, including the appendicular skeleton in amenorrheic runners. Calcif Tissue Int 64:117–125[CrossRef][Medline]
19. Nattiv A 2000 Stress fractures and bone health in track and field athletes. J Sci Med Sport 3:268–279[CrossRef][Medline]
20. Sabatini S 2001 The female athlete triad. Am J Med Sci 322:193–195[CrossRef][Medline]
21. Golden NH 2002 A review of the female athlete triad (amenorrhea, osteoporosis and disordered eating). Int J Adolesc Med Health 14:9–17[Medline]
22. Bennell K, White S, Crossley K 1999 The oral contraceptive pill: a revolution for sportswomen? Br J Sports Med 33:231–238[Abstract]
23. Notelovitz M, Zauner C, McKenzie L, Suggs Y, Fields C, Kitchens C 1987 The effect of low-dose contraceptives on cardiorespiratory function, coagulation, and lipids in exercising young women: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 156:591–598[Medline]
24. Casazza GA, Suh S-H, Miller BF, Navazio FM, Brooks GA 2002 Effects of oral contraceptives on peak exercise capacity. J Appl Physiol 93:1698–1702[Abstract/Free Full Text]
25. Bryner RW, Toffle RC, Ullrich IH, Yeater RA 1996 Effect of low dose oral contraceptives on exercise performance. Br J Sports Med 30:36–40[Abstract]
26. Lynch NJ, Nimmo MA 1998 Effects of menstrual cycle phase and oral contraceptives use on intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 78:565–572[CrossRef]
27. Eriksson A, Carlström K 1988 Prognostic value of serum hormone concentrations in prostatic cancer. Prostate 13:249–256[Medline]
28. Södergård R, Bäckström T, Shanbhag V, Carstensen H 1982 Calculation of free and bound fraction of testosterone and estradiol-17ß to plasma proteins at body temperature. J Steroid Biochem 18:801–804
29. Nuti R, Martini G, Right G, Frediani B, Turchetti V 1991 Comparison of total body measurements by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and dual-photon absorptiometry. J Bone Miner Res 6:681–687[Medline]
30. Brismar TB, Ringertz H 1996 Effect of bone density of the head on total body DEXA measurements in 100 healthy Swedish women. Acta Radiol 37:101–106[Medline]
31. Åstrand PO, Rodahl K 1986 Evaluation of physical performance on the basis of tests. In: Textbook of work physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 354–387
32. Rickenlund A, Carlström K, Ekblom B, Brismar T, von Schoultz, B, Lindén Hirschberg A 2003 Hyperandrogenicity is an alternative mechanism underlying oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea in female athletes and may improve physical performance. Fertil Steril 79:947–955[CrossRef][Medline]
33. Legér A, Lambert J 1982 A maximal multistage 20-m shuttle run test to predict VO₂ max. Eur J Appl Physiol 49:1–12
34. Ramsbottom R, Brewer J, Williams C 1988 A progressive shuttle run test to estimate maximal oxygen uptake. Br J Sports Med 22:141–144[Abstract]
35. Åström H, Jonsson B 1976 Design of exercise test with special reference to heart patients. Br Heart J 38:289–296[Abstract/Free Full Text]
36. Geary N 2001 Estradiol, CCK and satiation. Peptides 22:1251–1263[CrossRef][Medline]
37. Maltoni M, Nanni O, Scarpi E, Rossi D, Serra P, Amadori D 2001 High-dose progestins for the treatment of cancer anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Ann Oncol 12:289–300[Abstract/Free Full Text]
38. Krauss RM, Burkman Jr RT 1992 The metabolic impact of oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 167:1177–1184[Medline]
39. O’Sullivan AJ, Crampton LJ, Freund J, Ho KKY 1998 The rout of estrogen replacement therapy confers divergent effects on substrate oxidation and body composition in postmenopausal women. J Clin Invest 102:1035–1040[Medline]
40. Leenen R, van der Kooy, Seidell JC, Deurenberg P, Koppeschaar HPF 1994 Visceral fat accumulation in relation to sex hormones in obese men and women undergoing weight loss therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:1515–1520[Abstract]
41. Gruber DM, Sator MA, Kirchengast S, Joura EA, Huber JC 1998 Effect of percutaneous androgen replacement therapy on body composition and body weight in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 29:253–259[CrossRef][Medline]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				W. de Ronde, Y. T. van der Schouw, H. A.P. Pols, L. J.G. Gooren, M. Muller, D. E. Grobbee, and F. H. de Jong Calculation of Bioavailable and Free Testosterone in Men: A Comparison of 5 Published Algorithms Clin. Chem., September 1, 2006; 52(9): 1777 - 1784. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S L Liu and C M Lebrun Effect of oral contraceptives and hormone replacement therapy on bone mineral density in premenopausal and perimenopausal women: a systematic review Br. J. Sports Med., January 1, 2006; 40(1): 11 - 24. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a related Letter to the Editor Purchase Article View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Copyright Permission Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Rickenlund, A. Articles by Hirschberg, A. L. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Rickenlund, A. Articles by Hirschberg, A. L.