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Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry

New Mexico Clinical Research & Osteoporosis Center (E.M.L.), Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106; University of Cincinnati College of Medicine (N.B.W.), Cincinnati, Ohio 45267; Oregon Osteoporosis Center (M.R.M.), Portland, Oregon 97213; Texas Institute for Reproductive Medicine and Endocrinology (S.M.P.), Houston, Texas 77054; Stanford University School of Medicine (L.K.B.), Stanford, California 94305; University of California at San Francisco (J.A.S.), San Francisco, California 94143; and Virginia Commonwealth University (R.W.D.), Richmond, Virginia 23298

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: E. Michael Lewiecki, M.D., New Mexico Clinical Research and Osteoporosis Center, 300 Oak Street Northeast, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106. E-mail: lewiecki{at}aol.com.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 
The International Society for Clinical Densitometry (ISCD) periodically holds Position Development Conferences for the purpose of establishing standards and guidelines for indications, acquisition, and interpretation of bone density tests. Topics are selected for consideration by the ISCD Scientific Advisory Committee, reviewed by scientific working groups, and presented to an international panel of experts. Topic categories addressed to date include indications for bone density testing, selection of reference databases for T-scores and Z-scores, clinical applications for central and peripheral bone densitometry, serial bone density testing, instrument precision assessment, phantom scanning and calibration testing, requirements for a bone density report, nomenclature, and diagnosis of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, premenopausal women, men, and children. After an open session for public comment and discussion, the panel convenes for consideration of each topic and makes recommendations for positions to the ISCD Board of Directors. Recommendations that are accepted become the Official Positions of the ISCD. This Special Report summarizes the methodology of the ISCD Position Development Conferences and presents selected Official Positions of general interest.

	Introduction

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THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY for Clinical Densitometry (ISCD) is an independent not-for-profit multidisciplinary professional society with a mission to enhance knowledge and quality of bone densitometry among healthcare professionals, to provide continuing education courses for clinicians and technologists, to increase patient awareness and access to bone densitometry, and to support clinical and scientific advances in the field. With the increasing use of bone density testing for diagnosing osteoporosis and establishing fracture risk, inconsistencies have arisen in the way in which bone densitometry is performed and the results are interpreted. These inconsistencies, which may have adverse effects on patient care and the exchange of scientific information, include differences in indications for bone density testing, interpretation of results, methods of reporting, and terminology. To mitigate these inconsistencies and improve interpretation and reporting of bone mineral density (BMD), the ISCD periodically convenes Position Development Conferences (PDCs).

	Methodology

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 
Topics were selected for presentation at the PDC based on clinical relevance, current lack of guidelines, and likelihood of achieving agreement. Each topic was reviewed by members of the ISCD Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC), beginning with a literature search using a method modified from that used for Cochrane reviews (1). Searches for each topic, except indications for bone density testing, were conducted using MEDLINE, PubMed, and EMBASE databases. Appropriate articles were identified for further review and analysis by the SAC. Concurrently with these activities, a group of experts in the field of pediatric densitometry was developing a series of recommendations for bone density testing in children. All findings were presented to an international panel of experts in bone densitometry. After receiving comments from clinicians, technologists, and industry experts at a public forum, the panel members discussed each topic and made recommendations to the ISCD Board of Directors. Those that were approved became Official Positions of the ISCD. The most recent PDC was held in Cincinnati, Ohio, on July 25–27, 2003. The PDC was supported in part by unrestricted grants from industry, which had no role in the decisions of the panel and the ISCD Board of Directors and no role in the writing or editing of papers published in peer-reviewed journals. The complete review of the background and rationale for all ISCD Official Positions is published in the Journal of Clinical Densitometry (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14).

	Indications for Bone Density Testing

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Although dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is widely used to measure BMD, there are few guidelines regarding indications for testing in populations other than postmenopausal women. The ISCD has established comprehensive indications for bone density testing that consider all adults.

Bone density testing should be done for the following individuals: women 65 yr and older; postmenopausal women under 65 yr with risk factors; men 70 yr and older; adults with a fragility fracture; adults with a disease or condition associated with low bone mass or bone loss; adults taking medications associated with low bone mass or bone loss; anyone being considered for pharmacological therapy; anyone being treated, to monitor treatment effect; and anyone not receiving therapy in whom evidence of bone loss would lead to treatment.

Women discontinuing estrogen should be considered for bone density testing according to the indications listed above.

Comment: The National Osteoporosis Foundation has identified many of the risk factors for osteoporosis and related fractures in white postmenopausal women (15). Major risk factors are personal history of fracture as an adult, history of fragility fracture in a first-degree relative, low body weight [<57.7 kg (127 lbs)], current smoking, and use of oral glucocorticoid therapy for more than 3 months. Additional risk factors are impaired vision, estrogen deficiency at an early age (<45 yr), poor health/frailty, recent falls, low calcium intake (lifelong), low physical activity, and alcohol in amounts more than two drinks per day. Medical conditions associated with increased risk of osteoporosis include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, gastrectomy, hyperparathyroidism, hypogonadism, multiple myeloma, and celiac disease. Medications, in addition to oral glucocorticoids, that are associated with reduced bone mass in adults include anticonvulsants, GnRH agonists, excessive T₄ doses, and lithium. As with any test in clinical practice, bone density testing should only be done when it is likely to play a role in patient management decisions. For example, in a patient being considered for pharmacological therapy, a bone density test would assume such a role if the results would aid in the decision to start or not start medication, assist in the selection of the type of drug, or provide a baseline measurement for monitoring the effects of therapy. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, which only addressed postmenopausal women, also recommends that bone density testing be done for women 65 yr and older and for women 60 yr and older at increased risk for osteoporotic fractures (16).

	Central DXA for Diagnosis

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 
Measurement of BMD by DXA is the "gold-standard" method for the noninvasive diagnosis of osteoporosis (17, 18, 19, 20). The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of BMD for the diagnosis osteoporosis is based on the number of SD values that the measured BMD of the hip, lumbar spine, or forearm varies from the mean BMD of a young-adult reference population (21). The WHO did not specify how many skeletal sites to measure or which region(s) of interest within a skeletal site should be used for diagnosis. These issues are addressed in the following statements:

Skeletal sites to measure

Measure BMD at both posterior-anterior (PA) spine and hip in all patients. Forearm BMD should be measured under the following circumstances: when hip and/or spine cannot be measured or interpreted, in cases of hyperparathyroidism, or in very obese patients (over the weight limit for DXA table).

Spine region of interest

Use PA L1–L4 for spine BMD measurement. Use all evaluable vertebrae and only exclude vertebrae that are affected by local structural change or artifact. Use three vertebrae if four cannot be used and two if three cannot be used. Lateral spine should not be used for diagnosis but may have a role in monitoring.

Hip region of interest

Use total proximal femur, femoral neck, or trochanter, whichever is lowest. BMD may be measured at either hip. Do not use Ward’s area for diagnosis. There are insufficient data to determine whether mean T-scores for bilateral hip BMD can be used for diagnosis. The mean hip BMD can be used for monitoring, with total hip being preferred.

Forearm region of interest

Use 33% radius (sometimes called one-third radius) of the nondominant forearm for diagnosis. Other forearm regions of interest are not recommended.

Comment: Spine BMD should be interpreted with caution in the elderly because degenerative arthritis in the posterior elements of the spine may result in an artifactual increase in measured BMD. If there are significant structural abnormalities in the spine, then BMD should be measured at the hip and forearm.

	Peripheral Bone Densitometry

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Many studies have shown that BMD measurements at peripheral skeletal sites can be used to assess the risk of fracture at the spine, hip, and nonvertebral sites in postmenopausal white women (22). The relative risk for such fractures averages approximately 1.5 for each SD decrease in BMD below the mean BMD of the reference population. The concordance between prevalence of osteoporosis and lifetime fracture risk that has been observed using central skeletal sites and a T-score cutoff of –2.5 has not been rigorously demonstrated with peripheral BMD measured with a variety of technologies (23). Clinical trials examining the effect of antiresorptive agents on BMD have not found changes in BMD or ultrasound parameters at any peripheral site that exceeds the least significant change (24). The following statements represent the current state of knowledge for clinical applications of peripheral BMD testing.

The WHO classification for diagnosis of osteoporosis and osteopenia should not be used with peripheral BMD measurement other than 33% radius.

Peripheral measurements are useful for assessment of fracture risk and, theoretically, can be used to identify patients unlikely to have osteoporosis and identify patients who should be treated; however, this cannot be applied in clinical practice until device-specific cut-points are established and should not be used for monitoring.

	Densitometric Diagnosis of Osteoporosis

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 
The WHO classification of BMD for the diagnosis of osteoporosis is founded on extensive cross-sectional data in postmenopausal white women showing a consistent correlation between BMD measured by DXA and lifetime fracture risk. Because the relationship between BMD and fracture risk is much less clear in other populations, the validity of diagnosing osteoporosis based on T-score alone becomes more tenuous. These issues were considered in establishing the following positions on diagnosing osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, men, premenopausal women, and children.

Diagnosis in postmenopausal women

The WHO classification (normal, T-score –1.0 or above; osteoporosis, T-score –2.5 or below; osteopenia, T-score between –1.0 and –2.5) should be used. The lowest T-score of PA spine, femoral neck, total hip, trochanter, or the 33% radius, if measured, should be selected.

Diagnosis in men (20 yr and older)

The WHO classification should not be applied in its entirety to men. In men 65 yr and older, T-scores should be used and osteoporosis diagnosed if the T-score is at or below –2.5. In men from 50–65 yr, T-scores may be used and osteoporosis diagnosed if both the T-score is at or below –2.5 and other risk factors for fracture are identified. Men at any age with secondary causes of low BMD (e.g. glucocorticoid therapy, hypogonadism, hyperparathyroidism) may be diagnosed clinically with osteoporosis supported by findings of low BMD. The diagnosis of osteoporosis in men under 50 yr should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone.

Diagnosis in premenopausal women (20 yr to menopause)

The WHO classification should not be applied to healthy premenopausal women. Z-scores rather than T-scores should be used. Osteoporosis may be diagnosed if there is low BMD with secondary causes (e.g. glucocorticoid therapy, hypogonadism, hyperparathyroidism) or with risk factors for fracture. The diagnosis of osteoporosis in premenopausal women should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone.

Comment: In premenopausal white women, the age-matched Z-score and the young-adult-matched T-score are likely to be identical or very similar. Discordance between T-scores and Z-scores may occur when there are differences in ethnicity in the reference databases used. If a black premenopausal woman has her T-score calculated using a white female reference database, according to established ISCD positions (2), and her Z-score calculated using a black female reference database, the result may be a Z-score that is significantly lower than the T-score. For example, although a 30-yr-old white woman with low BMD could have a Z-score of –2.3 and a T-score of –2.3 (using a white female reference database for both), a black woman the same age with a Z-score of –2.3 (using a black female reference database) might have a T-score of –1.3 (using a white female reference database). The use of Z-score instead of T-score in premenopausal women serves to emphasize the point that the WHO criteria for BMD classification do not apply and provides a comparison of the patient’s BMD with a similar population.

Diagnosis in children (males or females <20 yr)

The WHO classification should not be applied to children. T-scores should not be used in children; Z-scores should be used instead. T-scores should not appear in reports or on DXA printouts in children. The diagnosis of osteoporosis in children should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. Terminology such as low bone density for chronological age may be used if the Z-score is below –2.0. Z-scores must be interpreted in the light of the best available pediatric databases of age- and gender-matched controls. The reference database should be cited in the report. Spine and total body are the preferred skeletal sites for measurement. The value of BMD to predict fractures in children is not clearly determined. There is no agreement on standards for adjusting BMD or bone mineral content for factors such as bone size, pubertal stage, skeletal maturity, and body composition. If adjustments are made, they should be clearly stated in the report. Serial BMD studies should be done on the same machine using the same scanning mode, software, and analysis when appropriate. Changes may be required with growth of the child. Any deviation from standard adult acquisition protocols, such as use of low-density software and manual adjustment of region of interest, should be stated in the report.

	DXA Nomenclature

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The medical literature and common clinical usage abounds with inconsistencies in bone densitometry terminology. Communication with colleagues and patients will be facilitated by the universal adoption of the following: DXA, not DEXA; T-score, not T score, t-score, or t score; and Z-score, not Z score, z-score, or z score.

	Summary

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 
The ISCD periodically holds PDCs for the purpose of establishing standards in the field of bone densitometry. The ISCD Official Positions on indications for bone density testing, clinical applications for central and peripheral bone densitometry, diagnosis of osteoporosis in men, premenopausal women, and children, and nomenclature are presented here. All of the ISCD Official Positions are published in the Journal of Clinical Densitometry (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14) and online at the ISCD web site (http://www.iscd.org) as a text file and downloadable slide presentation.

	Acknowledgments

 
Expert Panel members: John P. Bilezikian, M.D. (College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY); Nancy Fagan, RT (BD), CDT (Arizona Rheumatology Center, Phoenix, AZ); Ghada El-Hajj Fuleihan, M.D. (American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon); Didier B. Hans, Ph.D. (Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland); Conrad C. Johnson, Jr., M.D. (Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN); Gary M. Kiebzak, Ph.D. (St. Luke’s Episcopal Hospital, Houston, TX); Andrew J. Laster, M.D. (Arthritis and Osteoporosis Consultants of the Carolinas, Charlotte, NC); Michael R. McClung, M.D. (Oregon Osteoporosis Center, Portland, OR); Paul D. Miller, M.D. (Colorado Center for Bone Research, Lakewood, CO); Richard L. Prince, M.D. (University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia); John A. Shepherd, Ph.D. (University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA); Richard D. Wasnich, M.D. (Hawaii Osteoporosis Center, Honolulu, HI); Nelson B. Watts, M.D. (University of Cincinnati Bone Health and Osteoporosis Center, Cincinnati, OH).

Conference cochairs: Edward S. Leib, M.D. (University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT); Neil C. Binkley, M.D. (University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI); Ronald C. Hamdy, M.D. (East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN); E. Michael Lewiecki, M.D. (New Mexico Clinical Research and Osteoporosis Center, Albuquerque, NM).

Working Group for Diagnosis of Osteoporosis in Men, Premenopausal Women, and Children: David L. Kendler, M.D., chair (University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada); Jan Bruder, M.D. (University of Texas, San Antonio, TX); Gary W. Edelson, M.D. (Associated Endocrinologists, West Bloomfield, MI); Ignac Fogelman, BSc, M.D. (Guy’s Hospital, London, UK); Ghada El-Hajj Fuleihan, M.D. (American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon); Didier B. Hans, Ph.D. (Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland); Aliya Khan, M.D. (McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada); Brian C. Lentle, M.D. (University of British Columbia, Saanichton, British Columbia, Canada).

Pediatric DXA Guidelines Project: Laura Bachrach, M.D., chair (Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA); Ellen B. Fung, Ph.D., RD (Children’s Hospital and Research Center, Oakland, CA); Aenor J. Sawyer, M.D. (pediatric orthopedic surgeon, private practice, Oakland, CA).

Working Group for Technical Standardization for DXA: Gary M. Kiebzak, Ph.D., co-chair (St. Luke’s Episcopal Hospital, Houston, TX); Peg Schmeer, BS, CDT, co-chair (Northwest Bone Densitometry Consultants, Renton, WA); Mary M. Checkovich, MS, CDT (University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinic, Madison, WI); Satvinder Singh Dhaliwal, MSc, CDT (Curtin University, Perth, Australia); Nancy Fagan, RT (BD), CDT (Arizona Rheumatology Center, Phoenix, AZ); Harry K. Genant, M.D., Ph.D. (University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA); Larry G. Jankowski, CDT (Illinois Bone and Joint Institute, Morton Grove, IL); Bradford J. Richmond, M.D. (Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH); Elliot N. Schwartz, M.D. (Foundation for Osteoporosis Research and Education, Oakland, CA).

Working Group for Indications for DXA: Neil C. Binkley, M.D. (University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI) and the ISCD SAC.

Working Group for DXA Reporting and Vertebral Fracture Assessment: Oscar S. Gluck, M.D., chair (Arizona Rheumatology Center, Phoenix, AZ); Michael J. Maricic, M.D., co-chair (Southern Arizona Veterans Administration Health Care System, Tucson, AZ); Susan L. Greenspan, M.D. (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA); Michael Kleerekoper, M.D. (Wayne State University, Detroit, MI); Sergio Ragi Eis, M.D. (Ortopedia-Doencas Osteometabolicas, Praia Do Canto, Brazil); Donna M. Landis, RN, CDT (Osteoporosis D & M Center, Laurel, MD).

Working Group for Nomenclature and Decimal Places in Bone Densitometry: Robert W. Downs, Jr., M.D., chair (Virginia Commonweath University, Richmond, VA); Anthony B. Hodsman, M.D. (St. Joseph’s Health Centre, London, Ontario, Canada); Akira Itabashi, M.D. (Saitama Medical School, Moroyama, Japan); John A. Shepherd, Ph.D. (University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA); Rogene Tesar, Ph.D., CDT (Endocrinology Thyroid and Osteoporosis Center, Austin, TX).

	Footnotes

 
This work was supported by The Alliance for Better Bone Health (Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals and Aventis Pharmaceuticals); Eli Lilly & Co.; GE Medical Systems LUNAR; Hologic, Inc.; and Merck Human Health.

The complete ISCD position papers were previously published in J Clin Densitom 7:1–63 (2004).

Abbreviations: BMD, Bone mineral density; DXA, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry; ISCD, International Society for Clinical Densitometry; PA, posterior-anterior; PDC, Position Development Conference; SAC, Scientific Advisory Committee; WHO, World Health Organization.

Received January 23, 2004.

Accepted April 30, 2004.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Methodology Indications for Bone Density... Central DXA for Diagnosis Peripheral Bone Densitometry Densitometric Diagnosis of... DXA Nomenclature Summary References

 

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