| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, 80138 Naples, Italy
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Palmiero Monteleone, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, Largo Madonna delle Grazie, 80138 Napoli, Italy. E-mail: monteri{at}tin.it.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Recent studies suggest that this peptide may provide a peripheral signal to the central nervous system to stimulate food intake and increase adiposity in both rats and humans. In rodents, intracerebroventricular or peripheral administration of ghrelin induces food intake, increases hypothalamic expression of neuropeptide Y (NPY) (a potent stimulator of feeding) and causes weight gain (5, 6, 7, 8). Similarly, in humans, iv administration of ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food consumption (9). The ghrelin’s effects on food intake are independent of GH secretion and appear to be mediated via either the agouti-related protein and the melanocortin receptor pathways and the activation of the hypothalamic NPY/NPY-1 receptor pathway. In particular, it has been shown that, in the rat, the satiety-reducing effect of ghrelin is related to the antagonism of the inhibitory effect of the adipocyte-derived hormone leptin on hypothalamic NPY production (6). This raises the possibility that ghrelin and leptin are part of a peripheral dynamic feedback system that regulates body weight (BW) and energy homeostasis by modulating satiety.
Evidence has been provided that plasma ghrelin levels are influenced by acute and chronic changes in the energy balance. For instance, in rodents, plasma ghrelin levels increases upon fasting and return to baseline after intragastric administration of nutrients (8). Similarly, in humans, plasma ghrelin concentrations increase after fasting and decreases after habitual feeding (9, 10, 11, 12), suggesting that this peptide reflects the acute nutritional state of the organism and may also serve as an indicator of short-term energy imbalance. Furthermore, it has been shown that plasma ghrelin rises nearly 2-fold shortly before each meal and falls to minimum levels within 1 h after eating, a profile that is consistent with a physiological role of ghrelin in both initiating individual meals and regulating their size (13).
Ingested nutrients are the most likely mediator of the rapid postprandial fall in circulating ghrelin, although it is not yet clear whether the presence of nutrients in the stomach and in the gut or the metabolic response to food ingestion is the major determinant of ghrelin fall after eating (14, 15). Moreover, no study has been performed to investigate whether the ghrelin response to oral feeding is influenced by specific nutritional factors. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to test whether the macronutrient content of the meals influence postprandial ghrelin secretion. To this purpose, we assessed in healthy subjects the ghrelin responses to two isoenergetic meals with different amounts of carbohydrates and lipids but similar amounts of proteins. Plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, and leptin were also measured because these substances have been claimed to modulate ghrelin secretion in response to food intake (16, 17, 18).
|
Subjects and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Fourteen women, with a mean (±SD) age of 24.5 (±2.6) yr, were recruited for the study. They menstruated regularly, had normal exercise and drinking habits, and a stable BW in the 6 months preceding the study, without food restriction or dieting or other abnormal eating behaviors, as ascertained by a clinical interview. Subjects with a body mass index above 27 kg/m2 and/or antecedent of obesity were excluded from the study. Their mean (±SD) BW and body mass index were 60.0 (±6.1) kg and 21.5 (± 1.8) kg/m2, respectively. All women were drug free for at least 6 wk prior to entering the study, had normal physical examinations, normal values of routine blood and urine tests, and a normal electrocardiogram. None of them was taking oral contraceptives or had a past history of alcohol or drug abuse.
Protocol
The experimental protocol was approved by the local ethical committee, and all subjects gave their written consent after being fully informed of the nature and procedures of the study.
The experiment used a within-subject repeated measure design in which each woman served as her own control. All subjects were tested two times, 1 month apart, in the follicular phases of two consecutive menstrual cycles (d 5–10 from menses). On the first occasion, they arrived at our Clinical Investigation Unit at 0800 h after a 12-h fast. At 0815 h, they received a breakfast of 200 kcal, with 77% carbohydrates, 10% proteins, and 13% fat. At 1145 h, an iv catheter was inserted into an antecubital vein and connected to a saline solution, which was slowly infused to keep the catheter patent. At 1200 h, a lunch of 1217 kcal (with 77% carbohydrates, 10% proteins, and 13% fat) was served. Blood samples were drawn immediately before (time zero) and 45, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min after the lunch. On the second occasion, subjects underwent the same experimental procedures already described but received a breakfast of 200 kcal with 15% carbohydrates, 10% proteins, and 75% fat and a lunch of 1217 kcal with 15% carbohydrates, 10% proteins, and 75% fat. The order of the high-carbohydrate and high-fat meals was randomized. Blood was collected in tubes with lithium heparin as anticoagulant. Plasma was separated by centrifugation and stored at -20 C.
Eleven subjects rated their hunger on visual analog scales that used a 10-cm line with labels at the extremities indicating the most negative (not at all hungry) and the most positive (extremely hungry) ratings. Subjects completed baseline ratings before the noon meal and then at the scheduled time points of blood withdrawals.
Biochemical analyses
Plasma ghrelin was measured by a commercially available RIA (Phoenix Pharmaceuticals, Mountain View, CA). The sensitivity of the method was 1 pg/tube; intra- and interassay coefficients of variation (CV) were less than 5.3 and 13.6%, respectively. Plasma insulin was determined by an immunoradiometric method, using a commercial kit purchased from Biochem Immunosystem (Milan, Italy). The lower detection limit was 2.1 pmol/liter; intra- and interassay CV were 2.6 and 4.7%, respectively. Plasma leptin values were determined by a sandwich ELISA, using a commercial kit purchased from Alexis Biochemicals (Laufelfingen, Switzerland). The sensitivity of the method was 0.2 ng/ml; the intra- and interassay CV were 6.1 and 8.5%, respectively.
Plasma glucose was determined by a commercial enzymatic UV method (Sigma Diagnostics, St. Louis, MO).
For each hormone, all of a single subject’s samples were run in the same assay, and the order of tubes in the assay was randomized.
Statistics
The BMDP statistical software package (University of California, Berkeley, CA) (19) was used for data analysis.
Differences in both the hormone and hunger responses to the two isoenergetic meals were analyzed by two-way ANOVA with repeated measures, followed by the post hoc Tukey’s test. One-way ANOVA and analysis of covariance were employed to analyze differences in the maximum decreases in plasma ghrelin after the two test meals. The Pearson’s product moment correlation test was employed to analyze possible correlations among the variables. A stepwise multiple regression was used to test the effects of biochemical indices on the variability of hunger feelings after the two meals. A level of significance of P < 0.05 was used for all data analyses.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The meal x time repeated measures ANOVA yielded a significant main effect for time (F5,130 = 13.04; P < 0.0001) and a significant meal x time interaction (F5,130 = 2.88; P = 0.01). These data indicate that circulating ghrelin changed significantly across sampling times and significantly differed over the samplings after the two test meals. Indeed, mean plasma ghrelin levels significantly dropped after both meals, but the drop after the carbohydrate meal was greater than that observed after the fat meal (Fig. 1
, left panel). In each subject, when the lowest value of plasma ghrelin observed at any time point after meal consumption was expressed as a percentage of the preprandial (time zero) value (maximum postprandial decrease), one-way ANOVA showed that the mean maximum percent decrease in plasma ghrelin after a carbohydrate meal was significantly greater than after a fat meal (63.0 ± 9.3 vs. 49.7 ± 18.4%; F1, 26 = 5.774; P = 0.02) (Fig. 1, right panel). This difference was not affected by preprandial values of plasma ghrelin, as ascertained by the analysis of covariance (F1,25 = 4.68; P = 0.04).
|
The meal x time repeated measures ANOVA yielded a slight significant effect for time (F5,130 = 2.38; P = 0.04) but no significant meal x time interaction (F5,130 = 0.69; P = 0.6). These data indicate that circulating leptin did not change significantly across sampling times after the two different meals (Fig. 2, upper panel).
|
Data concerning circulating insulin in four subjects after the fat meal were not available because of technical drawbacks.
The meal x time repeated measures ANOVA yielded a significant effect for time (F5,110 = 23.33; P < 0.0001) for meal (F1,22 = 12.66; P < 0.002) and a significant meal x time interaction (F5,110 = 3.80; P = 0.003). These data indicate that circulating insulin changed significantly across sampling times and that, in the two test conditions, they displayed significant differences over the samplings. In fact, plasma insulin levels promptly increased after both types of meals and, at the end of the study period, were still higher than preprandial values. However, after the carbohydrate meal, circulating insulin was significantly higher than after the fat meal at all the time points (Fig. 2
, middle panel).
Plasma glucose
The meal x time repeated measures ANOVA yielded a significant effect for time (F5,130 = 14.65; P < 0.0001) and for meal (F1, 26 = 7.65; P = 0.01) but no significant meal x time interaction (F5, 130 = 1.53; P = 0.1). These data indicate that circulating glucose showed similar changes across sampling times after the two different meals, but the magnitude of these changes statistically differed. In fact, in both conditions, plasma glucose levels promptly increased after the meal and then returned to preprandial values at the end of the study period. However, after the carbohydrate meal, circulating glucose was significantly higher than after the fat meal at 45-, 60-, and 90-min time points (Fig. 2, bottom panel).
Hunger
The meal x time repeated measures ANOVA yielded a significant main effect for time (F5,100 = 22.83; P < 0.0001) and a significant meal x time interaction (F5,100 = 3.18; P = 0.01). These data indicate that hunger changed significantly across the time and significantly differed over time in the two test conditions. Indeed, hunger ratings significantly decreased after both meals; however, 120 min after the fat meal, they already returned to baseline values, whereas after the carbohydrate meal, they were still significantly decreased at the end of the observation period (Fig 3).
|
The areas under the curve from time zero to 180 min were calculated for leptin, glucose, and insulin. The Pearson’s correlation test did not show any significant correlation between the area under the curve of leptin, glucose, or insulin and the maximum percent decreases in circulating ghrelin after both carbohydrate and fat meals.
To assess whether hunger was related to circulating ghrelin, glucose, or insulin, maximum changes (
max) from baseline values in both hunger scores, plasma ghrelin, insulin, and glucose levels were calculated for each subject in each experimental condition, and a stepwise multiple regression with max hunger as the dependent variable and max ghrelin, insulin, and glucose as independent variables was run. Plasma ghrelin changes were significantly associated with hunger changes (F1,20 = 16.73; P < 0.007; R2 = 0.45). After removing this effect, no further significant associations emerged between hunger max and both insulin and glucose max.
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
In line with previous studies (10, 11, 20), present findings show that circulating ghrelin considerably falls after the ingestion of food, supporting a role for this peptide as a peripheral sensor of short-term positive energy imbalance. Moreover, they provide evidence that the postprandial fall of plasma ghrelin concentrations is higher after the consumption of a carbohydrate meal than after the ingestion of an isoenergetic fat meal. Consistent with our results, Weigle et al. (21) very recently reported that, in healthy individuals, absolute and percent meal-induced decreases of plasma ghrelin concentrations were higher during a 2-wk high- carbohydrate diet than during a 2-wk isocaloric moderate-fat diet. Therefore, these data altogether support the view that the nutrient composition of the diet influences circulating ghrelin levels in healthy subjects.
It has been suggested that the metabolic response to food ingestion, in terms of glucose and insulin changes, is the major determinant of the food-induced ghrelin suppression, because both glucose and insulin have a suppressant action on plasma ghrelin levels (13, 16, 17). Although in our study plasma glucose and insulin concentrations were higher after carbohydrate ingestion than after the fat meal, suggesting stronger suppressant signals for ghrelin in the first condition, we could not detect any significant relationship between the ghrelin responses (expressed as the maximum percent decreases from preprandial values) and both glucose and insulin modifications in the two test conditions. These findings are not in line with those of a previous study showing a positive correlation between postprandial changes of circulating ghrelin and the output of serum glucose (15). However, that investigation is not fully comparable to our study because of differences in the meal composition, the total amount of ingested calories, the gender of subjects, and the timing of blood sampling.
Moreover, it has been shown that the immediate suppressant effect of oral food on circulating ghrelin in humans cannot be reproduced by the combined iv and sc administration of glucose and insulin (15) or by iv administration of lipids (22), or by simple stomach expansion, as obtained by oral water load (14), whereas it can be induced by nonnutritive fiber ingestion (23) or by euglycemic hyperinsulinemia (22). All these data point to the uncertainty as to whether the true cause of meal-induced ghrelin suppression is the metabolic response, mechanical factors, the actual presence of nutrients in the gut, the food-induced taste stimulation, or the release of enteric hormones other than those investigated in this study. As a consequence, at present, it is not possible to define the precise mechanisms responsible for the reported different suppressant action of the high-carbohydrate and of the high-fat meal on circulating ghrelin in healthy women.
We also found that, as compared with a fat meal, the carbohydrate meal had a greater suppressing effect on the subjective hunger sensation. This is in line with the reported demonstration that oral carbohydrates have a greater satiating effect than lipids (24, 25). Moreover, in our subjects, we detected a significant association between meal-induced changes in plasma ghrelin and hunger feelings, with changes in plasma ghrelin being able to explain the 45% of the variance of hunger sensation. This finding seems to support the idea that circulating ghrelin, through its differential responses to diet manipulations, could be one of the factors involved in the mediation of the diverse satiating power of nutrients. However, in our experimental design, the subjects were not blind to the time of the day; therefore, we cannot exclude that appetite scores recorded on visual analog scales were determined as much by the passage of time as by plasma ghrelin levels. Further studies need to address this issue.
Some limitations of this study need to be discussed. First of all, we included only female subjects; hence, gender differences in the ghrelin responses to diet manipulations could have been missed. Secondly, we had no "sham-feeding" control condition, so we cannot exclude that the decrease of ghrelin after the meals may be due to the effects of a diurnal rhythm rather than the actual ingestion of nutrients. However, in our experimental design, each woman served as her own control, so it seems unlikely that the different decrease in circulating ghrelin observed after the two test meals could be linked exclusively to diurnal oscillations of the hormone levels. Moreover, the validity of self-reporting visual analog scales in rating hunger sensation has been questioned. It cannot be automatically assumed that changes in self-reported hunger ratings actually reflect a decrease or increase in hunger, because factors other than the hunger sensation, such as the palatability of food or feelings of nausea, may influence this rating. Finally, we limited our observation to the third hour after the food ingestion, when circulating ghrelin still appears to be decreasing; therefore, we cannot exclude that ghrelin suppression after the high-fat meal could have been greater if the observation period had been longer.
In conclusion, we demonstrated that, in humans, circulating ghrelin is affected by the nutrient composition of the diet, because its decrease after a high-carbohydrate meal is greater than after a high-fat meal. The mechanisms responsible for such a phenomenon and its possible implication in the physiology of satiety remain to be determined.
|
Footnotes |
|---|
max, maximum changes; NPY, neuropeptide Y. Received May 5, 2003.
Accepted July 21, 2003.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  N. Yang, X. Liu, E. L. Ding, M. Xu, S. Wu, L. Liu, X. Sun, and F. B. Hu Impaired Ghrelin Response after High-Fat Meals Is Associated with Decreased Satiety in Obese and Lean Chinese Young Adults J. Nutr., July 1, 2009; 139(7): 1286 - 1291. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. M. Beasley, B. A. Ange, C. A. M. Anderson, E. R. Miller III, T. P. Erlinger, J. T. Holbrook, F. M. Sacks, and L. J. Appel Associations Between Macronutrient Intake and Self-reported Appetite and Fasting Levels of Appetite Hormones: Results From the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial to Prevent Heart Disease Am. J. Epidemiol., April 1, 2009; 169(7): 893 - 900. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 X. Yin, Y. Li, G. Xu, W. An, and W. Zhang Ghrelin fluctuation, what determines its production? Acta Biochim Biophys Sin, March 1, 2009; 41(3): 188 - 197. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. R. Juvonen, A.-K. Purhonen, M. Salmenkallio-Marttila, L. Lahteenmaki, D. E. Laaksonen, K.-H. Herzig, M. I. J. Uusitupa, K. S. Poutanen, and L. J. Karhunen Viscosity of Oat Bran-Enriched Beverages Influences Gastrointestinal Hormonal Responses in Healthy Humans J. Nutr., March 1, 2009; 139(3): 461 - 466. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. Morgado, M. K. Gordon, M. del Carmen Minana-Solis, E. Meza, S. Levine, C. Escobar, and M. Caba Hormonal and metabolic rhythms associated with the daily scheduled nursing in rabbit pups Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, August 1, 2008; 295(2): R690 - R695. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. E. Foster-Schubert, J. Overduin, C. E. Prudom, J. Liu, H. S. Callahan, B. D. Gaylinn, M. O. Thorner, and D. E. Cummings Acyl and Total Ghrelin Are Suppressed Strongly by Ingested Proteins, Weakly by Lipids, and Biphasically by Carbohydrates J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2008; 93(5): 1971 - 1979. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. A. Gutierrez, P. J. Solenberg, D. R. Perkins, J. A. Willency, M. D. Knierman, Z. Jin, D. R. Witcher, S. Luo, J. E. Onyia, and J. E. Hale From the Cover: Ghrelin octanoylation mediated by an orphan lipid transferase PNAS, April 29, 2008; 105(17): 6320 - 6325. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Marzullo, A. Caumo, G. Savia, B. Verti, G. E. Walker, S. Maestrini, A. Tagliaferri, A. M. Di Blasio, and A. Liuzzi Predictors of Postabsorptive Ghrelin Secretion after Intake of Different Macronutrients J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2006; 91(10): 4124 - 4130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Bowen, M. Noakes, and P. M. Clifton Appetite Regulatory Hormone Responses to Various Dietary Proteins Differ by Body Mass Index Status Despite Similar Reductions in ad Libitum Energy Intake J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2006; 91(8): 2913 - 2919. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Gruendel, A. L. Garcia, B. Otto, C. Mueller, J. Steiniger, M. O. Weickert, M. Speth, N. Katz, and C. Koebnick Carob Pulp Preparation Rich in Insoluble Dietary Fiber and Polyphenols Enhances Lipid Oxidation and Lowers Postprandial Acylated Ghrelin in Humans J. Nutr., June 1, 2006; 136(6): 1533 - 1538. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Romon, S. Gomila, P. Hincker, B. Soudan, and J. Dallongeville Influence of Weight Loss on Plasma Ghrelin Responses to High-Fat and High-Carbohydrate Test Meals in Obese Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2006; 91(3): 1034 - 1041. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. A. Blom, A. Lluch, A. Stafleu, S. Vinoy, J. J Holst, G. Schaafsma, and H. F. Hendriks Effect of a high-protein breakfast on the postprandial ghrelin response Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2006; 83(2): 211 - 220. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Maffeis, R. C Bonadonna, A. Consolaro, R. Vettor, C. Banzato, D. Silvagni, G. Bogoni, M. Pellegrino, and L. Tato Ghrelin, insulin sensitivity and postprandial glucose disposal in overweight and obese children Eur. J. Endocrinol., January 1, 2006; 154(1): 61 - 68. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. I. Steinle, T. I. Pollin, J. R. O'Connell, B. D. Mitchell, and A. R. Shuldiner Variants in the Ghrelin Gene Are Associated with Metabolic Syndrome in the Old Order Amish J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2005; 90(12): 6672 - 6677. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. J. Moran, N. D. Luscombe-Marsh, M. Noakes, G. A. Wittert, J. B. Keogh, and P. M. Clifton The Satiating Effect of Dietary Protein Is Unrelated to Postprandial Ghrelin Secretion J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2005; 90(9): 5205 - 5211. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Erdmann, F. Lippl, S. Wagenpfeil, and V. Schusdziarra Differential Association of Basal and Postprandial Plasma Ghrelin With Leptin, Insulin, and Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes, May 1, 2005; 54(5): 1371 - 1378. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. E. Cerf, K. Williams, X. I. Nkomo, C. J. Muller, D. F. Du Toit, J. Louw, and S. A. Wolfe-Coote Islet cell response in the neonatal rat after exposure to a high-fat diet during pregnancy Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, May 1, 2005; 288(5): R1122 - R1128. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
W. A. Blom, A. Stafleu, C. de Graaf, F. J Kok, G. Schaafsma, and H. F. Hendriks Ghrelin response to carbohydrate-enriched breakfast is related to insulin Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2005; 81(2): 367 - 375. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. W. le Roux, M. Patterson, R. P. Vincent, C. Hunt, M. A. Ghatei, and S. R. Bloom Postprandial Plasma Ghrelin Is Suppressed Proportional to Meal Calorie Content in Normal-Weight But Not Obese Subjects J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., February 1, 2005; 90(2): 1068 - 1071. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Sanchez, P. Oliver, A. Palou, and C. Pico The Inhibition of Gastric Ghrelin Production by Food Intake in Rats Is Dependent on the Type of Macronutrient Endocrinology, November 1, 2004; 145(11): 5049 - 5055. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Arosio, C. L. Ronchi, P. Beck-Peccoz, C. Gebbia, C. Giavoli, V. Cappiello, D. Conte, and M. Peracchi Effects of Modified Sham Feeding on Ghrelin Levels in Healthy Human Subjects J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2004; 89(10): 5101 - 5104. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. J. Moran, M. Noakes, P. M. Clifton, G. A. Wittert, L. Tomlinson, C. Galletly, N. D. Luscombe, and R. J. Norman Ghrelin and Measures of Satiety Are Altered in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome But Not Differentially Affected by Diet Composition J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2004; 89(7): 3337 - 3344. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. Lanfranco, R. Giordano, M. Pellegrino, L. Gianotti, J. Ramunni, A. Picu, M. Baldi, E. Ghigo, and E. Arvat Free Fatty Acids Exert an Inhibitory Effect on Adrenocorticotropin and Cortisol Secretion in Humans J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2004; 89(3): 1385 - 1390. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Endocrinology | Endocrine Reviews | J. Clin. End. & Metab. |
| Molecular Endocrinology | Recent Prog. Horm. Res. | All Endocrine Journals |
, P < 0.01; #, P < 0.02 vs. hyperlipidic meal (post hoc Tukey’s test).