| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Other Original Articles |
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (G.C.S.S.), Cambridge University, CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom; Department of Fetal Medicine (E.J.S., A.D.C.), The Queen Mother’s Hospital, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, United Kingdom; and, Institute of Medical Genetics (J.A.C., D.A.A., J.M.C.), Yorkhill National Health Service Trust, Glasgow, G3 8SJ, United Kingdom
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Prof. Gordon C. S. Smith, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Cambridge University, Rosie Maternity Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom. E-mail: . gcss2{at}cam.ac.uk
Abstract
The risk of adverse perinatal outcome among 8839 women recruited to a multicenter, prospective cohort study was related to maternal circulating concentrations of trophoblast-derived proteins at 8–14 wk gestation. Women with a pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) in the lowest fifth percentile at 8–14 wk gestation had an increased risk of intrauterine growth restriction [adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.0–4.1], extremely premature delivery (adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.6–5.5), moderately premature delivery (adjusted odds ratio, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.7–3.5), preeclampsia (adjusted odds ratio, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.6–3.3), and stillbirth (adjusted odds ratio, 3.6; 95% CI, 1.2–11.0). The strengths of the associations were similar when the test was performed before 13 wk gestation or between 13 and 14 wk gestation. In contrast, levels of free ß-human CG, another circulating protein synthesized by the syncytiotrophoblast, were not predictive of later outcome in multivariate analysis. PAPP-A has been identified as a protease specific for IGF binding proteins. We conclude that control of the IGF system in the first and early second trimester trophoblast may have a key role in determining subsequent pregnancy outcome.
INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION and preterm birth are major determinants of perinatal morbidity and mortality. Much of routine prenatal care involves detecting women at increased risk of these adverse events and targeting intensive monitoring and interventions. Standard reviews of fetal physiology suggested that variation in human fetal growth was largely a phenomenon of the second half of pregnancy (1), and it is during this phase of pregnancy when women receive the bulk of prenatal care. However, a previous study showed that embryos and fetuses that were smaller than expected in the first trimester of pregnancy were more likely to have pregnancy complications, including intrauterine growth restriction and preterm birth (2). In the present study, we investigated whether circulating concentrations of two trophoblast-derived proteins in early pregnancy [pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) and free ß-subunit human CG (FßhCG)] might identify women at increased risk of subsequent adverse perinatal outcomes.
Materials and Methods
Blood samples were obtained from women between 8 and 14 wk gestation, attending 15 maternity hospitals in southern Scotland, as part of a prospective, nonintervention multicenter study on combined ultrasound and biochemical screening for Down’s syndrome, which is being reported elsewhere (Crossley et al., submitted for publication). Women were sent an information leaflet along with their booking notification and were invited to participate in the study when first attending for prenatal care. Gestational age at the time of recruitment was assessed by crown-rump length (CRL) and/or biparietal diameter, as recommended, using previously described protocols (3). Signed consent was obtained from all patients, and ethical approval was obtained from the institutional committees of all participating centers and from the regional multicenter ethics committee. No results were reported to either the obstetrician or patient, and prenatal care was not modified in any way by participation in the study.
Seven data collection
Relevant patient and pregnancy information were entered on the study data form, which was sent along with a clotted blood sample to the study coordinating center, where the data were entered into the study database. Samples were assayed for PAPP-A and FßhCG using the Kryptor immunoassay analyzer (Brahms, Berlin, Germany; formerly supplied by CIS-Bio International, Burgess Hill, UK). Kryptor assays are based on time- resolved amplified cryptate emission technology. PAPP-A exists complexed 2:2 with the precursor of eosinophil major basic protein, and the PAPP-A assay measures this PAPP-A/precursor of eosinophil major basic protein complex. The detection limit of the assay is 0.004 IU/liter (International reference preparation 78/610), and the coefficient of variation was found to be 3.5% at 4.58 IU/liter and 5.7% at 12.90 IU/liter. The FßhCG assay is specific for the unbound ß-subunit of hCG and measures both nicked and unnicked forms. The detection limit of the assay is 0.1 IU/liter (International reference preparation 75/551), and the coefficient of variation was found to be 4.3% at 17.6 IU/liter and 3.5% at 48.4 IU/liter. FßhCG and PAPP-A levels were converted to multiples of the median (MOMs) using the CRL or biparietal diameter measurement when the sample was obtained as an estimate of gestation. Because PAPP-A levels are reduced in smokers by around 15%, when compared with nonsmokers (4), separate medians were used for each group. PAPP-A and FßhCG MOM values were corrected for maternal weight using reciprocal-linear regression (5). Outcome data were gathered from each woman’s clinical record, after delivery, using predefined criteria and coded by a team of two research midwives, two obstetricians, and two clinical scientists.
Selection of study cohort
The database included 9002 records of singleton pregnancies where values for PAPP-A, FßhCG, and gestational age at the time of sampling were documented and outcome data were available. We excluded 121 (1.3%) records with missing values for birth weight (BW), 68 (0.8%) with missing values for perinatal outcome (i.e. stillbirth or livebirth), 99 (1.1%) records where the gestational age at delivery was outside the range of 24–43 wk, and 26 (0.3%) records where the karyotype was abnormal or missing. This left a study group of 8839 (some records had multiple exclusions or missing values).
Definitions and denominators
Nulliparous women were defined as women either having their first pregnancy or women whose births were preceded only by pregnancies that resulted in abortion before 24 wk gestation. Gestational age was defined as the number of completed weeks of gestation. A small-for-gestational-age baby was defined as a liveborn baby that was less than the fifth percentile of BW for the given week of gestation, using percentiles derived from 409,541 live births in Scotland between 1992–1998 (G. C. S. Smith, unpublished data). The denominator was all live births. Very preterm delivery was defined as birth of a live-born baby between 24 and 32 wk gestation inclusive and the denominator was all live births at or after 24 wk gestation. Moderately preterm delivery was defined as live births between 33 and 36 wk gestation inclusive and the denominator was all live-births at or after 33 wk gestation. Spontaneous preterm birth was defined as vaginal delivery of a liveborn baby between 24–36 wk where labor had not been induced. The denominator was spontaneous preterm births plus term births. Stillbirth was defined as delivery of a dead baby at or after 24 wk gestational age and the denominator was all births at or after 24 wk gestational age. Preeclampsia was defined as pregnancy-induced hypertension with proteinuria. Maternal age was defined as the age of the mother, in completed years, at term. Maternal height was measured in centimeters, maternal weight was measured in kilograms at the time of blood sampling, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated using weight divided by height squared. Nonsmoking was defined as never having smoked, at the time of first attendance for prenatal care; exsmokers were defined as women who stopped smoking either before or during pregnancy; and smokers were defined as women who smoked throughout pregnancy.
Statistical analyses
Separate analyses were undertaken for five dichotomous outcomes: delivery of a small-for-gestational-age baby, moderately preterm delivery, extremely preterm delivery, preeclampsia, and stillbirth. Univariate comparisons of dichotomous data were performed using the chi-square test (more than five observations in all cells) or Fisher’s exact test (five or fewer observations in one or more cells). Ordinal data were compared using the chi-square test for trend. The P values for all hypotheses tests were two-sided. Crude and adjusted odds ratios were obtained using logistic regression analysis (6). Height and BMI were categorized into strata, age was dichotomized into <35 and 
35, and gestational age at the time of sampling was dichotomized into <13 wk and 13 wk. The statistical significance of interaction terms was assessed using the likelihood ratio test. The goodness quality of fit of models was assessed using the Hosmer and Lemeshow test based on deciles of probability. All statistical analyses were performed using the Stata software package (Stata Corporation, College Station, TX), version 7.0.
Results
Among the study group, there were missing values for parity in 512 records (5.8%), for height in 739 (8.4%), for BMI in 814 (9.2%), for smoking status in 342 (3.9%), for ethnicity in 557 (6.3%), and for maternal age in 49 (0.6%). The basic demographic and outcome data are given in Table 1
. Values of PAPP-A measured in the study ranged from 0.09–27.70 IU/liter, and values of FßhCG ranged from 3.2–265 IU/liter.
|
). Moreover, there was an association between intrauterine growth restriction and moderately premature delivery across the whole range of PAPP-A (Fig. 1). When outcomes were compared in relation to FßhCG, there was a trend for increased proportions of growth-restricted babies with decreasing FßhCG, but not with any of the other outcomes (Fig. 2). The number of stillbirths was too small to test for trend, but the highest proportion of stillbirths was seen in the lowest deciles of both PAPP-A and FßhCG (Figs. 1 and 2).
|
|
). Women with the lowest 5% of PAPP-A MOMs were at increased risk of intrauterine growth restriction, moderately and extremely premature birth, preeclampsia, and stillbirth. Women with the lowest 5% of FßhCG MOMs were at increased risk of intrauterine growth restriction but none of the other outcomes.
|
), PAPP-A remained highly significantly predictive of all adverse outcomes when adjusted for FßhCG, BMI, height, ethnicity, parity, smoking status, maternal age, and gestational age at the time of sampling. There were no statistically significant interactions between PAPP-A and the other covariates. FßhCG was no longer significantly positively predictive of any adverse outcome when adjusted for PAPP-A, BMI, height, ethnicity, parity, smoking status, maternal age, and gestational age at the time of sampling. There were no statistically significant interactions between FßhCG and any of these other covariates. When the analysis was confined to spontaneous preterm births, there was a positive association with the lowest 5% of PAPP-A MOMs [adjusted odds ratio, 2.0; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.2–3.3; P = 0.005] but no association with the lowest 5% of FßhCG MOMs (adjusted odds ratio, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.4–1.4; P = 0.32).
|
In this study, we demonstrate that maternal circulating concentrations of PAPP-A at 8–14 wk gestation are significantly predictive of adverse perinatal outcome in later pregnancy. The strength of the association between PAPP-A and outcome before 13 wk gestation was similar to that at 13 wk gestation. These data indicate that, in a proportion of women, adverse pregnancy outcome is determined in the first trimester of pregnancy.
We had previously studied ultrasonic measurement of the CRL of the fetus and found that embryos and fetuses that were smaller than expected in the first trimester were more likely to be low BW, low BW at term, in the smallest fifth percentile of weight for gestational age, and born extremely prematurely (2). That study had certain weaknesses. First, the fetus might be smaller than expected because of variation in the assumed day of ovulation. Second, we were able to obtain an ideal menstrual history and early ultrasound in only approximately 10% of women, which meant that the technique could not be used as a screening test. Our current findings of an association between low PAPP-A and adverse outcome provide additional weight to our hypothesis that adverse perinatal outcome may be determined in early pregnancy. These observations suggest that measurement of specific circulating trophoblast-derived proteins in the first trimester of pregnancy may provide a potential screening tool to identify women at increased risk of subsequent adverse pregnancy outcome.
There is an extensive literature on the use of trophoblast-derived steroids and proteins, including PAPP-A, as biochemical tests of fetal well-being in the third trimester of pregnancy (7), although these are not currently widely used in antepartum monitoring. Previous studies of first-trimester measurement of PAPP-A and perinatal outcome have reported inconsistent results. One study compared first- trimester PAPP-A levels in 73 babies ultimately born less than the fifth percentile for gestational age and 87 babies ultimately born preterm with matched controls. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups (8). However, another study found a positive correlation between PAPP-A at 8–14 wk and eventual BW (9), and an analysis of 60 in vitro fertilization pregnancies described lower concentrations of PAPP-A in the first trimester among 8 women who eventually delivered preterm (10). Another study of 5297 women demonstrated lower PAPP-A levels at 10–14 wk gestation among women who miscarried, delivered babies small for gestational age, and developed preeclampsia (11). However, PAPP-A was used in these women to estimate the risk of the fetus having Down’s syndrome, and the study failed to take into account the effect of invasive procedures, which may well have explained the association with loss before 24 wk. Moreover, none of these studies took into account smoking status. Because smoking is associated with many of these outcomes (12) and is also associated with low PAPP-A (4), these studies are difficult to interpret. The advantages of the present study are: that it was a prospective cohort study, that the levels of serum markers did not influence clinical management, that key maternal factors such as weight and smoking were taken into account, and that it included much larger numbers of women who ultimately experienced adverse events.
The pattern of the association varied for different outcomes (Fig. 1
). In the case of preeclampsia, stillbirth, and extremely premature birth, the association was only with the smallest decile of PAPP-A. In the case of growth restriction and moderately premature delivery, the association was observed across the whole range of PAPP-A. Moreover, low FßhCG was also associated with growth restriction, although this was lost after adjusting for PAPP-A, whereas low FßhCG was not significantly associated with the other outcomes, even in univariate analysis (Tables 2 and 3). Both PAPP-A and FßhCG are produced by the syncytiotrophoblast (13, 14). It seems likely that these different patterns of association may reflect different pathophysiological mechanisms relating first-trimester trophoblast function and later adverse perinatal outcome. The fact that the strength and pattern of the association differed for the two trophoblast-derived proteins suggests that PAPP-A is not acting as a simple marker of the volume or health of the trophoblast but that the association reflects a specific property of PAPP-A in the physiological regulation of trophoblast function.
The precise mechanisms linking first-trimester levels of trophoblast-derived proteins and adverse outcomes will require further study. PAPP-A has been identified as a protease for IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-4 (15). IGFBPs bind IGF-I and IGF-II, inhibiting their interaction with cell surface receptors and have, therefore, a key role in modulating IGF activity (16). Because PAPP-A breaks down IGFBP (15), low levels of PAPP-A would be expected to be associated with high levels of IGFBP and, therefore, low levels of free IGF. The IGFs have a key role in regulating fetal growth (17). The IGFs have also been shown to control uptake of glucose and amino acids in cultured trophoblast (18) and are thought to have an important role in the autocrine and paracrine control of trophoblast invasion of the decidua (19). The current observation that PAPP-A was predictive of a range of adverse obstetric outcomes implies a fundamental role of this system in development of the placenta in early pregnancy, and the observed association between low PAPP-A and poor perinatal outcome is clearly biologically plausible.
In summary, first-trimester serum concentrations of PAPP-A, a trophoblast-specific protein regulating IGF function, is highly predictive of a range of subsequent adverse pregnancy outcomes. These observations imply that adverse outcome in late pregnancy may be determined in the first trimester of pregnancy, that control of the IGF system in early pregnancy may be critical in normal placental development, and that women at high risk of adverse pregnancy outcome may be identified in very early pregnancy.
Acknowledgments
CIS-Bio International (United Kingdom) provided instrumentation and reagents for PAPP-A and FßhCG. We are grateful to Dr. Olga Diaz-Moralles, Marion McCartney, Morag MacWatt, Elizabeth McBride, and Carole McCormick for their role in data collection. We are grateful to staff at all the participating hospitals for their role in this study: The Queen Mother’s Hospital (Glasgow, UK); Simpson Maternity (Edinburgh, UK); Southern General Hospital (Glasgow, UK); Eastern General (Edinburgh, UK); Rutherglen Maternity (Glasgow, UK); Western General (Edinburgh, UK); Glasgow Royal Maternity Hospital (Glasgow, UK); Roodlands (Edinburgh, UK); Royal Alexandria Hospital (Paisley, UK); Ninewells (Dundee, UK); Ayrshire Central Hospital (Irvine, UK); Forth Park (Kikcaldy, UK); Stirling Royal Infirmary (Stirling, UK); Falkirk and District Royal Infirmary (Falkirk, UK); and Inverclyde Royal Hospital (Greenock, UK).
Footnotes
This work was supported by a grant from the Chief Scientist Office, Scottish NHS Executive (K/MRS/50/C2593), and the Fetal Medicine Foundation. E.J.S. is a Fetal Medicine Foundation Research Fellow.
Abbreviations: BMI, Body mass index; BW, birth weight; CI, confidence interval; CRL, crown-rump length; FßhCG, free ß-human CG; IGFBP, IGF binding protein; MOM, multiple of the median.
Received November 5, 2001.
Accepted February 12, 2002.
References
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  H.-w. Yung, S. Calabrese, D. Hynx, B. A. Hemmings, I. Cetin, D. S. Charnock-Jones, and G. J. Burton Evidence of Placental Translation Inhibition and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in the Etiology of Human Intrauterine Growth Restriction Am. J. Pathol., August 1, 2008; 173(2): 451 - 462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Kim, G. Song, H. Gao, J. L. Farmer, M. C. Satterfield, R. C. Burghardt, G. Wu, G. A. Johnson, T. E. Spencer, and F. W. Bazer Insulin-Like Growth Factor II Activates Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-Protooncogenic Protein Kinase 1 and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Cell Signaling Pathways, and Stimulates Migration of Ovine Trophectoderm Cells Endocrinology, June 1, 2008; 149(6): 3085 - 3094. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. C. S. Smith, J. A. Crossley, D. A. Aitken, N. Jenkins, F. Lyall, A. D. Cameron, J. M. Connor, and R. Dobbie Circulating Angiogenic Factors in Early Pregnancy and the Risk of Preeclampsia, Intrauterine Growth Restriction, Spontaneous Preterm Birth, and Stillbirth Obstet. Gynecol., June 1, 2007; 109(6): 1316 - 1324. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Bukowski, G. C. S. Smith, F. D. Malone, R. H. Ball, D. A. Nyberg, C. H. Comstock, G. D. V. Hankins, R. L. Berkowitz, S. J. Gross, L. Dugoff, et al. Human Sexual Size Dimorphism in Early Pregnancy Am. J. Epidemiol., May 15, 2007; 165(10): 1216 - 1218. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. C. S. Smith, I. Shah, I. R. White, J. P. Pell, and R. Dobbie Previous Preeclampsia, Preterm Delivery, and Delivery of a Small for Gestational Age Infant and the Risk of Unexplained Stillbirth in the Second Pregnancy: A Retrospective Cohort Study, Scotland, 1992-2001 Am. J. Epidemiol., January 15, 2007; 165(2): 194 - 202. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. E. Murphy, R. Smith, W. B. Giles, and V. L. Clifton Endocrine Regulation of Human Fetal Growth: The Role of the Mother, Placenta, and Fetus Endocr. Rev., April 1, 2006; 27(2): 141 - 169. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. C. S. Smith, I. Shah, J. A. Crossley, D. A. Aitken, J. P. Pell, S. M. Nelson, A. D. Cameron, M. J. Connor, and R. Dobbie Pregnancy-Associated Plasma Protein A and Alpha-fetoprotein and Prediction of Adverse Perinatal Outcome Obstet. Gynecol., January 1, 2006; 107(1): 161 - 166. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Q. Qiu, A. Basak, M. Mbikay, B. K. Tsang, and A. Gruslin Role of pro-IGF-II processing by proprotein convertase 4 in human placental development PNAS, August 2, 2005; 102(31): 11047 - 11052. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Laigaard, T. Sorensen, S. Placing, P. Holck, C. Frohlich, K. R. Wojdemann, K. Sundberg, A.-C. Shalmi, A. Tabor, B. Norgaard-Pedersen, et al. Reduction of the Disintegrin and Metalloprotease ADAM12 in Preeclampsia Obstet. Gynecol., July 1, 2005; 106(1): 144 - 149. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Conde-Agudelo, J. Villar, and M. Lindheimer World Health Organization Systematic Review of Screening Tests for Preeclampsia Obstet. Gynecol., December 1, 2004; 104(6): 1367 - 1391. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. C. S. Smith, J. A. Crossley, D. A. Aitken, J. P. Pell, A. D. Cameron, J. M. Connor, and R. Dobbie First-Trimester Placentation and the Risk of Antepartum Stillbirth JAMA, November 10, 2004; 292(18): 2249 - 2254. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Goetzl, D. Krantz, J. L. Simpson, R. K. Silver, J. M. Zachary, E. Pergament, L. D. Platt, M. J. Mahoney, and R. J. Wapner Pregnancy-Associated Plasma Protein A, Free {beta}-hCG, Nuchal Translucency, and Risk of Pregnancy Loss Obstet. Gynecol., July 1, 2004; 104(1): 30 - 36. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. P. Sibley, P. M. Coan, A. C. Ferguson-Smith, W. Dean, J. Hughes, P. Smith, W. Reik, G. J. Burton, A. L. Fowden, and M. Constancia Placental-specific insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) regulates the diffusional exchange characteristics of the mouse placenta PNAS, May 25, 2004; 101(21): 8204 - 8208. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. C. S. Smith, J. P. Pell, and R. Dobbie Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Week of Gestation of Term Birth Pediatrics, June 1, 2003; 111(6): 1367 - 1371. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Endocrinology | Endocrine Reviews | J. Clin. End. & Metab. |
| Molecular Endocrinology | Recent Prog. Horm. Res. | All Endocrine Journals |
