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Divisions of Endocrinology (C.M., J.J.S., C.B.R., M.G., M.K., A.R.M., B.M.) and Clinical Pharmacology (J.D.), and Department of Central Laboratories (P.H.), University Hospital Basel, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. C. Meier, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Petersgraben 4, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland. E-mail: cmeier{at}uhbs.ch
Abstract
This study evaluated the effect of physiological, TSH-guided, L-thyroxine treatment on serum lipids and clinical symptoms in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Sixty-six women with proven subclinical hypothyroidism (TSH, 11.7 ± 0.8 mIU/liter) were randomly assigned to receive L-thyroxine or placebo for 48 wk. Individual L-thyroxine replacement (mean dose, 85.5 ± 4.3 µg/d) was performed based on blinded TSH monitoring, resulting in euthyroid TSH levels (3.1 ± 0.3 mIU/liter). Lipid concentrations and clinical scores were measured before and after treatment. Sixty-three of 66 patients completed the study. In the L-thyroxine group (n = 31) total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly reduced [-0.24 mmol/liter, 3.8% (P = 0.015) and -0.33 mmol/liter, 8.2% (P = 0.004), respectively]. Low density lipoprotein cholesterol decrease was more pronounced in patients with TSH levels greater than 12 mIU/liter or elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels at baseline. A significant decrease in apolipoprotein B-100 concentrations was observed (P = 0.037), whereas high density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein AI, and lipoprotein(a) levels remained unchanged. Two clinical scores assessing symptoms and signs of hypothyroidism (Billewicz and Zulewski scores) improved significantly (P = 0.02).
This is the first double blind study to show that physiological L-thyroxine replacement in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism has a beneficial effect on low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and clinical symptoms of hypothyroidism. An important risk reduction of cardiovascular mortality of 9–31% can be estimated from the observed improvement in low density lipoprotein cholesterol.
SUBCLINICAL HYPOTHYROIDISM (SCH) has been detected with increasing frequency in recent years and is causing major controversies concerning management and treatment. This syndrome is characterized by the finding of elevated TSH levels in the presence of normal circulating thyroid hormones, T4, and T3 (1, 2, 3). In a classical epidemiological study the prevalence of SCH was 7.5% in women and 2.8% in men (4). The highest prevalence (up to 16%) was found in elderly women over 60 yr of age (5). It is to be expected that an increasing number of patients with SCH will be detected by the widespread use of TSH measurements, as TSH screening has been shown to be cost-effective (6).
Patients with SCH may present with variable clinical manifestations, showing signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism. SCH has been linked with abnormalities of lipid metabolism [increased serum total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)] (3) associated with increased risk for coronary heart disease, and depression (7, 8). In addition, several target tissues were shown to be affected [e.g. ankle reflex time (9, 10), systolic time intervals (11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16), and PRL levels (10, 13)].
Short-term intervention trials showed a lipid-lowering effect of L-thyroxine in patients with SCH (17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23), which, however, could not be confirmed in placebo-controlled, double blind studies in rather small groups of patients (13, 14, 24). To evaluate the therapeutic effect of physiological L-thyroxine doses, we initiated a prospective, double blind, placebo- and TSH-controlled study in a larger group of patients with SCH. The aim was to investigate the clinical and lipid-lowering effects of physiological L-thyroxine replacement in patients with confirmed subclinical hypothyroidism.
Materials and Methods
Study population
Between September 1993 and May 1997, 66 women with SCH were enrolled in this prospective study. All patients were examined and followed-up in the Thyroid Research Unit of the Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University Hospital Basel (Basel, Switzerland). The inclusion criteria were as follows: 18–75 yr old, TSH level more than 5.0 mIU/liter on 2 consecutive blood tests, exaggerated TSH response of more than 35 mIU/liter after oral TRH stimulation, free T4 concentration within the normal range, and good general health as assessed by a full medical and endocrine work-up. The exclusion criteria were as follows: coronary heart disease, pituitary/hypothalamic disorders, or other nonthyroidal illnesses; thyroid hormone medication up to 3 months before enrollment; lipid-lowering agents within 6 months before enrollment; and obvious or suspected poor compliance. Forty-nine of 66 patients had a postmenopausal hormone status, with identical ratios between the treatment groups (L-thyroxine, 25/33; placebo, 24/33). In patients receiving E replacement therapy (9 in each group) the dose remained unchanged over the entire study period.
The underlying thyroid disorders leading to SCH were autoimmune thyroiditis (n = 33), Graves’ disease (n = 22; treated with radioiodine, surgery, or carbimazole), toxic multinodular goiter (n = 1; treated with radioiodine), surgically resected goiter (n = 6), and idiopathic SCH (n = 4). The median time after radioactive iodine therapy before entry into the study was 11.0 yr (range, 1–42 yr). The frequencies of underlying thyroid disorders were equally distributed in the L-thyroxine and placebo groups.
A total of 63 women (mean age, 58.5 ± 1.3 yr) completed the study according to the study protocol, with no serious adverse events reported. The study was terminated early in 2 participants due to previously unknown serious medical comorbidities [endometrial cancer (L-thyroxine group), malignant astrocytoma (placebo group)] and to rapid progression to clinically overt hypothyroidism in 1 L-thyroxine-treated patient. Patients were followed-up until May 1998.
Design and organization of the study
We used a prospective, double blind, placebo-controlled trial
design. Eligible patients were sequentially assigned to either the
L-thyroxine treatment group (n = 33) or the placebo
group (n = 33) according to a predefined randomization list. The
study duration for each patient was 50 wk, including a 2-wk run-in
phase before starting treatment. During the first 24 wk, the
L-thyroxine dose was adapted continuously every 6 wk to
achieve optimal physiological hormone replacement with euthyroid TSH
levels [i.e. basal TSH concentration within the reference
range (0.1–4.0 mIU/liter)]. L-thyroxine
(Henning Berlin GmbH & Co., Berlin, Germany) was given in
the fasting state in tablets of 25, 50, 75, 100, or 125 µg active
ingredient. The placebo tablets were prepared and packed in an
identical manner as the L-thyroxine tablets. The
dosage was controlled every 6 wk to ascertain an optimal replacement
regimen (mean L-thyroxine dose at the end of the
study, 85.5 ± 4.3 µg daily; range, 50–125 µg; Fig. 1
). To guarantee blinding, patients in
the placebo group received tablets with dose adjustments in concordance
to their randomly assigned patients in the treatment group. Hormone
measurements were transmitted to an endocrinologist outside the
hospital, who communicated the necessary dose adjustments to the
hospital pharmacist, who then mailed the medication of
L-thyroxine or placebo to the patients.
Compliance to Good Clinical Practice guidelines was assured by
external study monitoring. The study was approved by the local ethics
committee for human studies. All patients gave their written informed
consent to participate in the trial.
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Hormone measurements as well as serum lipid measurements were
assessed at the baseline visit and at the end of the study after 48 wk.
Serum samples were collected in the fasting state, immediately put on
ice, and processed within 30 min. Thereafter, they were kept frozen at
-70 C. To minimize nonspecific variability, all parameters were
evaluated twice in a period of 2 wk (before and after treatment); for
statistical analysis the results of both measurements were averaged.
All laboratory analyses, including biochemical, hematological, and
lipid profiles, were conducted at the Department of Central
Laboratories at the University Hospital Basel. Lipoprotein(a) levels
were measured at the Institute of Clinical Chemistry, State Hospital
(St. Gallen, Switzerland). Total cholesterol (reference range, 3.0–5.2
mmol/liter), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C; 0.9–2.2
mmol/liter), and triglycerides (0.5–2.3 mmol/liter) were assayed
enzymatically by automated procedures (Roche). LDL-C
levels (1.6–3.4 mmol/liter) were calculated using the formula of
Friedewald. Apolipoprotein AI (0.95–2.0 g/liter) and apolipoprotein
B-100 (0.65–1.35 g/liter) were measured using immunonephelometry
(Beckman Instruments, Inc./Hybritech, Palo Alto,
CA). All lipid concentrations were measured in the fasting state, and
no dietary instructions were given. The serum TSH concentration
(reference range, 0.1–4.0 mIU/liter) was measured by immunometric
assay (Delfia, Wallac, Inc., Turku, Finland). Free
T4 (8.0–23.0 pmol/liter) and total
T3 (1.2–3.1 nmol/liter) were determined by
microparticle enzyme immunoassays( IMx, Abbott Laboratories, Inc., Chicago, IL). The degree of clinical hypothyroidism was
estimated using the score developed by Billewicz
(25) (euthyroidism is indicated by a score of
-30 points, borderline hypothyroidism by -29 to +24 points, and
clinical hypothyroidism by 
25 points) and using the score developed
by Zulewski et al. (25) (euthyroidism is
indicated by a score of 0–1 point, borderline hypothyroidism by 2–5
points, and clinical hypothyroidism by >5 points, including an
age-correcting factor), as previously described (25).
Statistical analyses
All data are expressed as the mean ± SEM.
Unpaired t test (two-sided) or Mann-Whitney U
test in the case of nonparametric distributions was used to identify
demographic variables showing differences among the groups. Differences
of frequencies were tested with the 
2 test or
Fisher’s exact test, as appropriate. In the case of significant
interaction between treatment and intrasubject effect, treatment
effects were compared for each treatment group by paired t
test (two-sided) for normally distributed data and Wilcoxon signed rank
test for nonparametric distributions. Levels that were undetectable
were assigned a value equal to the lower limit of detection for the
assay. All analyses were performed by intention to treat unless
otherwise specified. Significance was defined as P
0.05. Data were analyzed using SPSS for Windows (version 10.0,
SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL).
Results
Baseline characteristics
Between September 1993 and May 1998, 63 women (mean age, 58.5
± 1.3 yr) completed the study as foreseen by the study protocol. At
baseline the 2 groups of women with SCH (L-thyroxine,
n = 31; placebo, n = 32) were similar with respect to age,
body mass index, smoking habits, and E status. The patient groups were
also well balanced regarding thyroid hormone concentrations, serum
lipid levels, and clinical scores of hypothyroidism. In both groups
basal TSH levels were mildly to markedly elevated (range, 5.0–50
mIU/liter) with an exaggerated TSH response of more than 35 mIU/liter
after orally administered TRH. Peripheral thyroid hormone
concentrations (fT4 and T3)
were within the lower reference range (Table 1).
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The L-thyroxine dose in the treatment group (mean
dose, 85.5 ± 4.3 µg daily) was adapted at 6-wk intervals to
decrease the TSH concentration to the euthyroid reference range. In all
L-thyroxine-treated patients, TSH concentrations were in
the reference range at least for the last 24 wk. The mean serum TSH
level at the end of the study was 3.1 ± 0.3 mIU/liter (Fig. 1
and
Table 2). No patient had a blunted
or absent TSH response to TRH. Peripheral thyroid hormone
concentrations (free T4 and
T3) increased significantly within the reference
range. As expected, no change in any variable of thyroid function
occurred in the placebo group (Table 2).
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In all women serum lipid concentrations were measured before and
at the end of the study. Significant changes in lipid concentrations
could be seen in L-thyroxine-treated patients only, whereas
placebo-treated patients showed no significant change during the study
period (Table 2). After 48 wk of L-thyroxine treatment
total cholesterol levels decreased significantly by -0.24 ± 0.09
mmol/liter (3.8%; P = 0.015), whereas LDL-C levels
decreased by -0.33 ± 0.11 mmol/liter (8.2%; P =
0.004; Fig. 2). Apolipoprotein B-100
levels were significantly reduced (P = 0.037). The
apolipoprotein B-100/LDL-C ratio did not change after 48 wk of
L-thyroxine replacement. In addition, HDL-C
levels, triglycerides, and apolipoprotein AI levels as well as
lipoprotein(a) concentrations remained unchanged. A comparison of the
mean treatment effects between the two treatment groups
(L-thyroxine, n = 31; placebo, n = 32)
did not reach the level of significance [total cholesterol,
P = 0.23; LDL-C, P = 0.11; HDL-C,
P = 0.16; triglycerides, P = 0.97;
apolipoprotein AI, P = 0.16; apolipoprotein B-100,
P = 0.71; lipoprotein(a), P =
0.83].
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12
mIU/liter; n = 18), slightly lesser improvements in lipid
concentrations could be observed [-0.20 ± 0.12 mmol/liter
(3.3%) for total cholesterol and -0.31 ± 0.15 mmol/liter
(8.2%) for LDL-C, respectively; Fig. 3]. The lipid-lowering effect of
L-thyroxine was greater in the subset of patients
with elevated pretreatment total cholesterol values (6.2 mmol/liter;
n = 17) with a mean total cholesterol decrease of -0.34 ±
0.12 (4.9%; P = 0.01). Similarly, a significant
treatment effect was observed in patients with elevated pretreatment
LDL-C levels (4.0 mmol/liter; n = 13), with a mean LDL-C
decrease of -0.55 ± 0.09 mmol/liter (11.2%; P
< 0.0001), and for those with elevated pretreatment apolipoprotein
B-100 levels (>1.35 g/liter; n = 9), with a mean apolipoprotein
B-100 decrease of -0.22 ± 0.08 (13.8%; P =
0.02; Table 3).
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For clinical assessment, clinical scores of hypothyroidism were
determined using two different questionnaires (Billewicz and Zulewski
scores) at the baseline visit and at the end of the study. Significant
improvement of both questionnaires, assessing clinical signs and
symptoms, was found in L-thyroxine-treated patients, in
contrast to placebo-treated women (P = 0.02; Table 2).
A comparison of the mean treatment effects between the two treatment
groups (L-thyroxine, n = 31; placebo, n
= 32) did not reach the level of significance (Billewicz score,
P = 0.31; Zulewski score, P = 0.53).
Analyzing subsets of patients, an improvement in symptom score was
noted only in those T4-treated patients with
pretreatment TSH levels greater than 12 mIU/liter (n = 13;
e.g. Billewicz score: at baseline, -24.2 ± 4.6
points; after L-thyroxine, -34.3
± 3.4; P = 0.049). In contrast, in patients with lower
TSH values (12 mIU/liter; n = 18), changes in symptom
questionnaires were not significant (e.g. Billewicz score,
P = 0.21).
Discussion
Primary hypothyroidism is a graded phenomenon with different levels of severity, showing a wide interindividual range of clinical and biochemical presentation. The earliest form of hypothyroidism, called SCH or mild thyroid failure, is defined by an increased serum TSH level in the presence of normal concentrations of circulating thyroid hormones (26). Although the original definition is based solely on biochemical criteria, it is well recognized that some individual patients may present with symptoms and signs of hypothyroidism (10, 13, 14, 25).
The Whickham study, an extensive population-based survey, showed a prevalence of mild thyroid failure of 7.5% in women and 2.8% in men (4). Based on these data, it can be estimated that at least 20 million people in the European Union and over 14 million in the United States are affected by this syndrome. The number of patients diagnosed is increasing due to the widespread use of TSH measurements (6, 27, 28).
However, the need for treatment of SCH is still a matter of debate. The aim of our study was to investigate the clinical and metabolic effects of L-thyroxine replacement in patients with SCH. Therefore, we used a double blind and placebo-controlled study design. Throughout the study continuous TSH monitoring and adaptation of the L-thyroxine dose were performed to guarantee physiological thyroid hormone replacement. To the best of our knowledge this is the only study that combines a double blind design with randomization by matched pairs (either L-thyroxine or placebo group) and TSH-guided dose adaptations throughout the entire trial period.
In the thyroxine treatment group, the mean serum TSH concentration was 12.8 ± 1.4 mIU/liter before and 3.1 ± 0.3 mIU/liter after treatment, whereas TSH levels remained unchanged in the control group. As expected, free T4 levels increased within the reference range in parallel to the L-thyroxine dose adjustment. Dose adaptations were necessary in most patients for the first 24 wk of treatment before reaching a steady state condition (L-thyroxine dose after 48 wk, 85.5 ± 4.3 µg daily; range, 50–125 µg). SCH and confounding supraphysiological therapeutic effects were excluded in all patients, in contrast to other studies in which overtreatment could be assumed at least in some subjects (14, 19, 29).
In SCH, major discrepancies concerning the effect on lipoprotein concentrations have been described in the literature. Several researchers found serum lipid concentrations, mainly total cholesterol levels, within the normal range. Others detected elevated total cholesterol or LDL-C concentrations, especially in smokers (3, 10, 30, 31, 32). In addition, increases in HDL-C and apolipoprotein AI concentrations were found (33); however, the reported changes were not consistent.
Using a double blind, placebo-controlled study design, we found significant decreases in total and LDL-C levels. This is the first randomized trial that clearly demonstrates that elevated serum lipid levels, mainly total and atherogenic LDL-C levels, are lowered by thyroid hormone replacement in patients with mild thyroid failure. L-thyroxine therapy resulted in a decrease in mean serum cholesterol by 3.8% (0.24 mmol/liter) and in LDL-C by 8.2% (0.33 mmol/liter), respectively. Two previously published randomized trials showed only minimal and nonsignificant reductions of total cholesterol levels during L-thyroxine therapy and no data for LDL-C (13, 14). A further placebo-controlled study found a LDL-C reduction of 3.6% (0.13 mmol/liter) after T4 replacement, which, due to the smaller sample size, did not reach statistical significance (24). Conversely, our data are in accordance with 2 recent meta-analyses that calculated a beneficial effect of L-thyroxine on serum cholesterol concentrations (29, 34). In a quantitative review of 13 intervention trials Danese and co-workers (19, 29) reported a similar reductions total cholesterol and LDL-C levels, with mean decreases of 0.20 and 0.26 mmol/liter, respectively. Thus, the results from the present double blind study are in agreement with those of several uncontrolled intervention trials in the current literature.
HDL-C, triglycerides, lipoprotein(a), as well as apolipoprotein AI levels were not changed after 48 wk of L-thyroxine supplementation, whereas apolipoprotein B-100 concentrations showed a significant decrease during thyroid hormone replacement. As the apolipoprotein B-100/LDL cholesterol ratio did not change, the LDL particle size remained unchanged. Thus, the LDL-C reduction during L-thyroxine replacement therapy did not result in a depletion of LDL-C, and thus smaller and more atherogenic LDL particles.
In the present study a slightly better improvement in LDL-C levels
could be seen in patients with TSH levels more than 12 mIU/liter. When
analyzed according to pretreatment LDL-C levels, serum LDL-C was
reduced in all patients with cholesterol levels of 4.0 mmol/liter or
more (mean reduction of 11.2%). Similarly, a significant decrease in
serum values was observed in patients with elevated total cholesterol
levels (i.e. 6.2 mmol/liter) and elevated apolipoprotein
B-100 levels (i.e. >1.35 g/liter) at baseline, but not in
the subgroups with lower values. Thus, a risk-stratified therapeutic
approach for patients with SCH with impending thyroid failure or
elevated serum lipid levels can be advocated.
Based on published data from the Seven Countries Study (35) and the Munster Heart Study (PROCAM) (36) and adapted to LDL-C concentrations, we estimated the relative risk reduction in coronary heart disease mortality. A mean decrease in serum LDL-C of -0.33 mmol/liter, as documented in all L-thyroxine-treated patients, corresponds to an important risk reduction of 17%. When we analyzed different subgroups of L-thyroxine-treated patients according to TSH and LDL-C levels at baseline, the estimated risk reduction ranged from 9–31% in relation to the observed decrease in LDL-C (-0.17 to -0.60 mmol/liter). The lowest estimated risk reduction was found for the group of patients with basal LDL-C levels below 4.0 mmol/liter and TSH levels of 12 mU/liter or less; the highest reduction was calculated for the subgroup with LDL-C and TSH levels above these limits.
Hence, mild thyroid failure must be considered as another risk factor contributing to the development of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Several cross-sectional studies suggested an association between SCH or autoimmune thyroid disease and atherosclerosis (37). Furthermore, a recently published population-based study has given evidence that SCH itself may be an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women (38). However, these findings were not confirmed by other investigations (39, 40). Further mechanisms are suggested to be involved in the association between mild thyroid failure and cardiovascular disease. These include a hypercoagulable state (41) and endothelial effects of thyroid hormones (42). However, controlled long-term studies evaluating cardiovascular morbidity and mortality as end points would be needed to definitively confirm our conclusions.
In addition to the change in lipid and lipoprotein levels, significant improvement of clinical signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism assessed by two separate clinical scores (Billewicz and Zulewski scores) (25) could be demonstrated. These results are in accordance with two controlled trials documenting clinical and metabolic improvements in patients with mild thyroid failure treated with thyroid hormones (13, 14).
Smokers with mild thyroid failure were shown to have markedly more pronounced metabolic signs and symptoms of peripheral tissue hypothyroidism than nonsmokers, including a worse lipid profile (30). In the present study only a low percentage of patients were smokers. Based on the finding of a significant improvement of the atherogenic lipid and lipoprotein profile in mainly nonsmokers, an even more beneficial effect of physiological L-thyroxine therapy can be anticipated in smokers with SCH.
The decision to treat patients with mild thyroid failure is based on the fact that some symptoms may be reversed by hormone supplementation and that therapy prevents progression to the overt stage of hypothyroidism (43, 44, 45). Furthermore, L-thyroxine therapy is indicated in special clinical conditions, such as goiter, thyroidectomy, depression, infertility, and endocrine ophthalmopathy. Regarding our findings of a definite improvement in the plasma lipoprotein profile, we advocate replacement therapy in patients with mild thyroid failure and hypercholesterolemia, in particular in the presence of other cardiovascular risk factors, such as smoking. Overdose with unphysiological (not TSH-controlled) T4 treatment can produce overt or mainly subclinical hyperthyroidism with TSH suppression. It has been shown that endogenous SCH may be associated with adverse effects, such as mild clinical signs of hyperthyroidism and impaired quality of life (46), induction of atrial fibrillation (47), acceleration of osteoporosis, or possibly dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (48). Therefore, fine-tuning of T4 replacement therapy with the goal of restoring the serum TSH concentration to a physiological level is mandatory.
In conclusion, we demonstrate by this double blind study that SCH has negative clinical and metabolic effects in affected patients. Physiological, TSH-guided, L-thyroxine treatment can improve LDL-C and total cholesterol levels and clinical signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism, and thereby may reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with this common syndrome.
Acknowledgments
The study team consisted of the following: Clinical Research Center (Thyroid Research Unit, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University Hospital of Basel): S. Alscher, B. Althaus, C. Courtin, J. Galambos, A. Gessler, P. Greber, M. Guglielmetti, M. Kraenzlin, M. Kunz, M. Lerch, C. Meier, B. Müller, A. R. Miserez, C. B. Roth, U. Schild, J. J. Staub, P. Trittibach, and D. Weyermann; hormone measurements and lipid profile (Department of Central Laboratories, University Hospital of Basel, and Institute of Clinical Chemistry, State Hospital, St. Gallen, Switzerland): P. Huber, S. Frey, H. Engler, W. F. Riesen, and collaborators; external study monitoring: A. Brink and R. Herzog; statistical analysis and advice (Division of Endocrinology and Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University Hospital of Basel): M. Guglielmetti and J. Drewe.
Footnotes
This work was supported by grants from the Swiss Research Foundation (32.27866.89, 32.37792.93, and 32.37792.98) and unconditional research grants from Henning Berlin, Sandoz Research, and Roche Research Foundations. Presented in part at the 82nd Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, Toronto, Canada, 2000.
Abbreviations: HDL-C, High density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low density lipoprotein cholesterol. SCH, subclinical hypothyroidism.
Received March 19, 2001.
Accepted July 16, 2001.
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H. Grasberger, A. Mimouni-Bloch, M.-C. Vantyghem, G. van Vliet, M. Abramowicz, D. L. Metzger, H. Abdullatif, C. Rydlewski, P. E. Macchia, N. H. Scherberg, et al. Autosomal Dominant Resistance to Thyrotropin as a Distinct Entity in Five Multigenerational Kindreds: Clinical Characterization and Exclusion of Candidate Loci J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2005; 90(7): 4025 - 4034. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Razvi, L. E Ingoe, C. V McMillan, and J. U Weaver Health status in patients with sub-clinical hypothyroidism Eur. J. Endocrinol., May 1, 2005; 152(5): 713 - 717. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Gullu, H. Sav, and N. Kamel Effects of levothyroxine treatment on biochemical and hemostasis parameters in patients with hypothyroidism Eur. J. Endocrinol., March 1, 2005; 152(3): 355 - 361. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Gussekloo, E. van Exel, A. J. M. de Craen, A. E. Meinders, M. Frolich, and R. G. J. Westendorp Thyroid Status, Disability and Cognitive Function, and Survival in Old Age JAMA, December 1, 2004; 292(21): 2591 - 2599. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. S. Cooper Thyroid Disease in the Oldest Old: The Exception to the Rule JAMA, December 1, 2004; 292(21): 2651 - 2654. [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Monzani, N. Caraccio, M. Kozakowa, A. Dardano, F. Vittone, A. Virdis, S. Taddei, C. Palombo, and E. Ferrannini Effect of Levothyroxine Replacement on Lipid Profile and Intima-Media Thickness in Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Double-Blind, Placebo- Controlled Study J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2004; 89(5): 2099 - 2106. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Helfand Screening for Subclinical Thyroid Dysfunction in Nonpregnant Adults: A Summary of the Evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Ann Intern Med, January 20, 2004; 140(2): 128 - 141. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. I. Surks, E. Ortiz, G. H. Daniels, C. T. Sawin, N. F. Col, R. H. Cobin, J. A. Franklyn, J. M. Hershman, K. D. Burman, M. A. Denke, et al. Subclinical Thyroid Disease: Scientific Review and Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management JAMA, January 14, 2004; 291(2): 228 - 238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. F. Col, M. I. Surks, and G. H. Daniels Subclinical Thyroid Disease: Clinical Applications JAMA, January 14, 2004; 291(2): 239 - 243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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