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Original Studies |
Lipid Research Center, CHUQ Research Center (C.C., J.B., J.-P.D.), and Physical Activity Sciences Laboratory, Laval University (J.G., J.-P.D., C.B.); School of Kinesiology and Leisure Studies (A.S.L.), Sainte-Foy, Québec, Canada G1V 4G2; University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455; Division of Biostatistics (D.C.R.) and Departments of Psychiatry and Genetics (D.C.R), Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Missouri 63130; Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University (J.S.S.), Bloomington, Indiana 47405; and Department of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A & M University (J.H.W.), College Station, Texas 77843
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Jean-Pierre Després, Ph.D., Lipid Research Center, CHUQ Research Center, CHUL Pavilion, 2705 boulevard Laurier, Room TR-93, Sainte-Foy, Québec, Canada G1V 4G2. E-mail: jean-pierre.despres{at}crchul.ulaval.ca
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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4-dione), and
androst-5-ene-3ß,17ß-diol (5-diol) (1, 4).
In addition, some studies have reported a relationship between AT
distribution and plasma sex steroid hormone concentrations with low
testosterone, 4-dione,
5-diol, and sex hormone-binding globulin
(SHBG) levels being found in viscerally obese men (1, 3, 4, 5) along with
increased plasma estrogen concentrations (1, 6). Significant changes in body fatness and AT distribution occur with age, and older subjects are generally characterized by increased body fatness and a preferential accumulation of abdominal AT (7, 8, 9). On the other hand, aging has also been associated with a reduction in plasma sex steroid hormone concentrations, with older men having lower plasma testosterone levels (10, 11, 12). Furthermore, decreases in DHEA, DHEA fatty acid ester (DHEA-FA), and DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S) levels have been reported with advancing age (10, 11). However, to what extent these age-related alterations in the steroid hormone profile result from the concomitant increase in total and abdominal AT is not well documented. The aim of the present study was to examine age-related differences in body fatness, AT distribution, and plasma steroid hormone profile in a sample of 217 Caucasian healthy men covering a wide age range.
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Subjects and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The HERITAGE Family Study cohort has been previously described (13). We report herein the results obtained from a subsample of 217 Caucasian men from the original HERITAGE cohort. Subjects were healthy and sedentary and met a number of inclusion and exclusion criteria (13). The study protocol had been previously approved by the institutional review board at each of the four clinical centers. Informed consent was obtained from each subject.
Anthropometric and body composition measurements
Body weight, height, as well as waist and hip circumferences were measured following standardized procedures (14), and the waist to hip ratio was calculated. Body density was measured using the hydrostatic weighing technique (15). The mean of the highest 3 (of 10) measurements was used in the calculation of percent body fat from body density using the equation of Siri (16). Fat mass was obtained by multiplying body weight by percent body fat. These measurements have been shown to be highly reproducible with no difference between clinical centers or drift over time in the course of data collection (17).
Computed tomography
Visceral AT accumulation was assessed by computed tomography using previously described procedures (18, 19). Briefly, the subjects were examined in the supine position with both arms stretched above the head. The scan was performed at the abdominal level (between L4 and L5 vertebrae) using an abdominal scout radiograph to standardize the position of the scan to the nearest millimeter. The total AT area was calculated by delineating the abdominal scan with a graph pen and then computing the AT surface with an attenuation range of -190 to -30 Hounsfield units (18, 19, 20). The abdominal visceral AT area was measured by drawing a line within the muscle wall surrounding the abdominal cavity. The abdominal sc AT area was calculated by subtracting the visceral AT area from the total abdominal AT area.
Plasma steroid hormone and SHBG concentrations
On two separate occasions (24-h interval), blood samples were
obtained from an antecubital vein into Vacutainer tubes (Savant
Instrument Co., Farmingdale, NY) with no anticoagulant in the morning
between 0700–0900 h after a 12-h fast with participants in a
semirecumbent position. Fasting serum was prepared according to a
standard protocol. After centrifugation of blood at 2000 x
g for 15 min at 4 C, two aliquots of 2 mL were placed in
cryogenic tubes and frozen at -80 C until analysis. For nonconjugated
steroids, DHEA and testosterone were differentially
extracted with hexane-ethyl acetate (9:1, vol/vol), whereas petroleum
ether (35–65 C) was used for the extraction of
4-dione and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
In-house RIAs were performed to measure levels of these four steroids.
Cortisol, estradiol, and DHEA-S were assayed directly
using commercially available kits (Diagnostics Systems Laboratories, Inc., Webster, TX). For ester-conjugated steroids,
i.e. DHEA-FA, an ethanol extraction was
performed followed by C18 column chromatography
as described by Bélanger et al. (21), and the
resulting fatty acid derivatives were submitted to saponification.
These steroids were then separated by elution on LH-20 columns. Levels
of the steroids were measured by RIA as previously described (22). SHBG
was determined with an IRMA-Count solid phase immunoradiometric assay
using 125I (Diagnostics Systems Laboratories, Inc.).
Plasma insulin concentrations
Plasma insulin levels were measured by RIA after polyethylene glycol separation, as described by Desbuquois and Aurbach (23). Polyclonal antibodies that cross-react more than 90% with proinsulin (and presumably, with its conversion intermediates) were used (24). Therefore, in this study insulin refers to immunoreactive insulin (defined as the sum of insulin, proinsulin, and split proinsulin).
Statistical analysis
The present study was performed using the pretraining data of the HERITAGE Family Study. The mean of two measurements has been used for steroid levels. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to quantify the relationships among age, body fatness, AT distribution indexes, and fasting plasma steroid hormone concentrations. The general linear model was used to analyze differences in body fatness, AT distribution, and plasma steroid concentrations between subgroups of men stratified on the basis of age, i.e. 1) 19 yr and younger, 2) 20–29 yr, 3) 30–39 yr, 4) 40–49 yr, and 5) 50 yr and older. A multiple regression analysis was also performed to estimate the independent contributions of age, total body fat mass, and AT distribution indexes (namely waist and hip circumferences as well as abdominal sc and visceral AT accumulations) to the variation in fasting plasma sex steroid hormone levels and SHBG concentrations. All analyses were performed using the SAS statistical package (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC).
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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shows the physical
characteristics of subjects stratified on the basis of age. We noted an
age-related increase in body fatness, as body mass index and percent
body fat increased throughout the age groups but reached a plateau
above 30 yr of age. Concomitant changes in body fat distribution were
also noted as waist circumference increased with age. Although there
was a significant increase in hip girth with age, there still was a
preferential accumulation of AT in the abdominal region, as expressed
by the stepwise increase with age in the waist to hip ratio.
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illustrates body fat mass as
well as sc and visceral AT areas measured by computed tomography in the
various age groups. As expected, we noted an increase in total body fat
mass and abdominal sc and visceral AT accumulation with age. However,
as opposed to total body fat mass and the abdominal sc AT area, which
reached a plateau among men 30 yr and older, there was a constant and
stepwise increase in visceral AT accumulation throughout all age
groups.
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. Contrary to
cortisol and estradiol concentrations, which were not related to age,
we noted significant age-related decreases in
4-dione, DHEA,
DHEA-FA, and DHEA-S levels. Furthermore,
older men were characterized by lower DHT and testosterone
concentrations as well as higher SHBG levels; this increase was only
noted among men 50 yr and older (Fig. 2).
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). With the
exception of cortisol, DHEA-FA, and estradiol, an
increased body fatness (expressed by body mass index, percent body fat,
or fat mass) and abdominal AT accumulation (Table 4) were predictive of lower plasma levels
of 4-dione, DHEA,
DHEA-S, DHT, and testosterone as well as reduced SHBG
concentrations.
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). Associations among
4-dione, DHEA,
DHEA-S, DHT, and age were maintained after statistical
adjustment for total body fat mass. However, the association between
testosterone concentrations and age did not resist the adjustment for
body fat mass. The association between SHBG and age was unaltered by
the statistical adjustment procedure.
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). We found that
the variance in C19 adrenal steroids levels was
predominantly explained by age, whereas the variation in DHT,
testosterone, and SHBG concentrations was best explained by abdominal
AT accumulation expressed as either waist girth or computed
tomography-measured sc AT area.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Differences in plasma steroid hormone levels were also noted among the various age groups. Indeed, as others have previously reported (10, 11), we noted significant age-related decreases in C19 adrenal steroids (DHEA, DHEA-FA, and DHEA-S) and androgens (testosterone and DHT). Thus, our results reinforce the well documented idea that age is related to alterations in the plasma steroid hormone profile.
Obesity is related to several metabolic alterations, including
disturbances in the steroid hormone profile (25). In the present study
significant associations were found among plasma steroid hormone
concentrations, body fatness, and AT distribution indexes. Indeed,
increased overall adiposity and abdominal fat accumulation were
associated with reduced C19 steroid hormone and
androgen levels as well as with decreased SHBG concentrations. This is
in accordance with previous results (1, 2, 3, 5). For example, concordant
with the studies of Tchernof et al. (1), we also found lower
testosterone, DHEA, 4-dione, and
SHBG levels in obese individuals.
Although adiposity, body fat distribution, and plasma steroid hormone concentrations appear to be closely interrelated, to the best of our knowledge the present study is the first to examine the importance of increased adiposity and changes in AT distribution in age-related alterations in the plasma steroid hormone profile. In the present study we were able to address this issue, as we studied a sample of men covering a wide range of both adiposity values and age. We found that when adjusted for body fat mass, the associations between C19 adrenal steroid concentrations and age were maintained. On the other hand, despite the adjustment procedure for body fat mass, the relationship between testosterone and age was eliminated. Thus, testosterone levels are associated with body fatness, and this relationship appears to be largely independent of the aging process per se.
The mechanisms by which C19 adrenal steroids vary with age are not well known. Whether reduced adrenal production or changes in the activity of enzymes implicated in the metabolism of these steroids are responsible for such an observation will require further investigation. However, the reduction in testosterone in obese men could be explained by a decrease in the production of gonadal steroids. Glucocorticoids have been reported to alter testosterone secretion by the testis (25, 26, 27), and obese subjects often present an activated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that is associated with increased plasma glucocorticoid concentrations. In the present study the activity of the HPA axis was not investigated, but the lack of variation in cortisol levels with age and body fatness suggests that the inhibition of gonadal androgen production by glucocorticoids may not be the dominant mechanism for the age-related alterations in steroid levels. This observation is also in accordance with previous studies that have reported no change (28) or slight variation (10, 29, 30) in plasma cortisol concentrations with age. On the other hand, it is well known that plasma cortisol levels are characterized by circadian variations (31). In a study in which a 24-h cortisol profile was obtained, Van Cauter et al. (32) found that aging was associated with significant alterations in HPA axis activity, resulting in a decrease in the amplitude of diurnal rhythmicity of cortisol secretion. At first glance, these observations may appear to be in conflict with our results. However, we must emphasize that when Van Cauter et al. (32) studied morning cortisol, they did not, as in our study, find any age-related difference in cortisol levels between younger (20–29 yr) and older (50 yr and more) individuals.
Another mechanism by which adiposity may influence C19 adrenal steroid and androgen concentrations may be found in the AT itself. It has been proposed that AT may act as a peripheral organ for the conversion of androgens to estrogens (33, 34). Indeed, through the effect of numerous enzymes, adrenal steroids (which are precursors of androgens or estrogens) may be converted in a more potent manner to estrogens in obese patients, thus contributing to their decreases in plasma C19 adrenal steroid and androgen concentrations. Despite the fact that in the present study there was no increase in estradiol levels with age, the possibility of increased conversion of androgens to estrogens cannot be ruled out. Indeed, estrone concentrations, but not estradiol, have been shown to be increased in obese individuals (1). However, the absence of estrone measurement in the present study did not allow us to verify this possibility.
The association among age, body fat mass, and plasma SHBG levels may generate confusion. For instance, here we report a positive relationship between SHBG concentrations and age, whereas SHBG is negatively correlated with total body fat mass. Furthermore, we report the expected positive association between age and body fatness. Similar associations between SHBG levels and age (35, 36, 37) as well as body fatness (1, 38, 39, 40, 41) have been reported. Thus, the increase in SHBG observed with age is unlikely to be related to differences in body fatness. Whether age per se or changes in lifestyle with age are responsible for the age-related increase in SHBG levels is beyond the scope of our study. However, not all studies have reported an increase in SHBG with advancing age (42, 43). On the other hand, a possible explanation for the lower SHBG levels in subjects characterized by increased adiposity may be the hyperinsulinemic state often reported in obese subjects (44). Indeed, insulin has been shown to inhibit hepatic SHBG production in HepG2 cells (45), an observation that has been supported by several cross-sectional analyses in humans (46, 47, 48, 49). The fact that we also noted a significant positive association between fasting insulin and total body fat mass (r = 0.43; P < 0.0001) and a negative correlation between insulinemia and SHBG levels (r = -0.20; P < 0.005) would tend to support such a hypothesis.
In summary, the results of the present study indicate that the reduction in plasma testosterone concentrations often reported with age is explained at least to a certain extent by the concomitant increase in body fatness. In contrast, C19 adrenal steroid levels decrease with age, and this reduction does not seem to solely result from the higher adiposity of older individuals. Although the mechanisms by which adiposity contributes to the reduction in circulating testosterone concentrations are unclear, the possible conversion of androgens and their precursors to estrogens in AT should be considered among other likely possibilities. However, further studies are needed to establish whether these relationships imply causation and to elucidate the physiological mechanisms responsible for these associations.
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Footnotes |
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2 Supported in part by the Henry L. Taylor Professorship in Exercise
Science and Health Enhancement.
3 Chair Professor of Nutrition and Lipidology supported by
Parke-Davis/Warner Lambert and Provigo.
4 Holds the Donald B. Brown Research Chair on Obesity from the
Medical Research Council of Canada.
Received August 25, 1999.
Revised October 22, 1999.
Accepted November 15, 1999.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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,17ß-diol glucuronide as a steroid correlate of
visceral obesity in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 82:1528–1534.5-4 isomerase (3ß-HSD)
and 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17ß-HSD) in adipose tissue.
Int J Obes. 15(Suppl 2):91–99.
-dihydrotestosterone and
oestradiol-17ß in blood of normal men. Maturitas. 2:109–118.[CrossRef][Medline]
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