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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism Vol. 89, No. 6 2548-2556
Copyright © 2004 by The Endocrine Society

Obesity: Special Feature

Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ

Erin E. Kershaw and Jeffrey S. Flier

Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02215

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Erin E. Kershaw, M.D., or Jeffrey S. Flier, M.D., Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 330 Brookline Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02215. E-mail: ekershaw{at}bidmc.harvard.edu or jflier{at}bidmc.harvard.edu.

Adipose tissue is a complex, essential, and highly active metabolic and endocrine organ. Besides adipocytes, adipose tissue contains connective tissue matrix, nerve tissue, stromovascular cells, and immune cells. Together these components function as an integrated unit. Adipose tissue not only responds to afferent signals from traditional hormone systems and the central nervous system but also expresses and secretes factors with important endocrine functions. These factors include leptin, other cytokines, adiponectin, complement components, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, proteins of the renin-angiotensin system, and resistin. Adipose tissue is also a major site for metabolism of sex steroids and glucocorticoids. The important endocrine function of adipose tissue is emphasized by the adverse metabolic consequences of both adipose tissue excess and deficiency. A better understanding of the endocrine function of adipose tissue will likely lead to more rational therapy for these increasingly prevalent disorders. This review presents an overview of the endocrine functions of adipose tissue.

Abbreviations: ACE, Angiotensin-converting enzyme; AdipoR, adiponectin receptor; AGT, angiotensinogen; ASP, acylating simulation protein; AT1, angiotensin II receptor type I; CNS, central nervous system; HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; HSD, hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; 11ßHSD1, 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1; IL-6R, IL-6 receptor; MCP, monocyte chemotactic protein; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acid; PAI, plasminogen activator inhibitor; RAS, renin angiotensin system; SNS, sympathetic nervous system; TZD, thiazoladinedione.




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I-C. Yu, H.-Y. Lin, N.-C. Liu, R.-S. Wang, J. D. Sparks, S. Yeh, and C. Chang
Hyperleptinemia without Obesity in Male Mice Lacking Androgen Receptor in Adipose Tissue
Endocrinology, May 1, 2008; 149(5): 2361 - 2368.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical SciencesHome page
T. You, B. J. Nicklas, J. Ding, B. W. J. H. Penninx, B. H. Goodpaster, D. C. Bauer, F. A. Tylavsky, T. B. Harris, S. B. Kritchevsky, and for the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study
The Metabolic Syndrome Is Associated With Circulating Adipokines in Older Adults Across a Wide Range of Adiposity
J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., April 1, 2008; 63(4): 414 - 419.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Physiol. Rev.Home page
E. D. Abel, S. E. Litwin, and G. Sweeney
Cardiac Remodeling in Obesity
Physiol Rev, April 1, 2008; 88(2): 389 - 419.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
P. A. Velasquez-Mieyer, P. A. Cowan, S. Perez-Faustinelli, R. Nieto-Martinez, C. Villegas-Barreto, E. A. Tolley, R. H. Lustig, and B. S. Alpert
Racial Disparity in Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 and Inflammation Markers Among Severely Obese Adolescents
Diabetes Care, April 1, 2008; 31(4): 770 - 775.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 DiabetesHome page
B. K. Tan, R. Adya, S. Farhatullah, K. C. Lewandowski, P. O'Hare, H. Lehnert, and H. S. Randeva
Omentin-1, a Novel Adipokine, Is Decreased in Overweight Insulin-Resistant Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Ex Vivo and In Vivo Regulation of Omentin-1 by Insulin and Glucose
Diabetes, April 1, 2008; 57(4): 801 - 808.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 DiabetesHome page
Y. Li, C. Jiang, G. Xu, N. Wang, Y. Zhu, C. Tang, and X. Wang
Homocysteine Upregulates Resistin Production From Adipocytes In Vivo and In Vitro
Diabetes, April 1, 2008; 57(4): 817 - 827.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
M. E. Johansson, I. J. Andersson, C. Alexanderson, O. Skott, A. Holmang, and G. Bergstrom
Hyperinsulinemic rats are normotensive but sensitized to angiotensin II
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, April 1, 2008; 294(4): R1240 - R1247.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Arch Intern MedHome page
C. S. Fox, M. J. Pencina, R. B. D'Agostino, J. M. Murabito, E. W. Seely, E. N. Pearce, and R. S. Vasan
Relations of Thyroid Function to Body Weight: Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Observations in a Community-Based Sample
Arch Intern Med, March 24, 2008; 168(6): 587 - 592.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur Heart J SupplHome page
E. Ferrannini, A. M. Sironi, P. Iozzo, and A. Gastaldelli
Intra-abdominal adiposity, abdominal obesity, and cardiometabolic risk
Eur. Heart J. Suppl., March 1, 2008; 10(suppl_B): B4 - B10.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
C.-C. Juan, T.-Y. Chuang, C.-C. Lien, Y.-J. Lin, S.-W. Huang, C. F. Kwok, and L.-T. Ho
Leptin increases endothelin type A receptor levels in vascular smooth muscle cells
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, March 1, 2008; 294(3): E481 - E487.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 StrokeHome page
S. Terao, G. Yilmaz, K. Y. Stokes, M. Ishikawa, T. Kawase, and D. N. Granger
Inflammatory and Injury Responses to Ischemic Stroke in Obese Mice
Stroke, March 1, 2008; 39(3): 943 - 950.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur Heart J SupplHome page
R. W. Nesto and K. Mackie
Endocannabinoid system and its implications for obesity and cardiometabolic risk
Eur. Heart J. Suppl., March 1, 2008; 10(suppl_B): B34 - B41.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
K M Choi, J S Lee, E J Kim, S H Baik, H S Seo, D S Choi, D J Oh, and C G Park
Implication of lipocalin-2 and visfatin levels in patients with coronary heart disease
Eur. J. Endocrinol., February 1, 2008; 158(2): 203 - 207.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
S. Park, S. M. Hong, S. R. Sung, and H. K. Jung
Long-Term Effects of Central Leptin and Resistin on Body Weight, Insulin Resistance, and {beta}-Cell Function and Mass by the Modulation of Hypothalamic Leptin and Insulin Signaling
Endocrinology, February 1, 2008; 149(2): 445 - 454.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
L. A. Kosmiski, P. Bacchetti, D. P. Kotler, S. B. Heymsfield, C. E. Lewis, M. G. Shlipak, R. Scherzer, and C. Grunfeld
Relationship of Fat Distribution with Adipokines in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2008; 93(1): 216 - 224.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am J EpidemiolHome page
R. C. Thurston, M. R. Sowers, Y. Chang, B. Sternfeld, E. B. Gold, J. M. Johnston, and K. A. Matthews
Adiposity and Reporting of Vasomotor Symptoms among Midlife Women: The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation
Am. J. Epidemiol., January 1, 2008; 167(1): 78 - 85.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
C. Herder, S. Schneitler, W. Rathmann, B. Haastert, H. Schneitler, H. Winkler, R. Bredahl, E. Hahnloser, and S. Martin
Low-Grade Inflammation, Obesity, and Insulin Resistance in Adolescents
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2007; 92(12): 4569 - 4574.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
H. Zhang, X. Chen, J. Aravindakshan, and M. R. Sairam
Changes in Adiponectin and Inflammatory Genes in Response to Hormonal Imbalances in Female Mice and Exacerbation of Depot Selective Visceral Adiposity by High-Fat Diet: Implications for Insulin Resistance
Endocrinology, December 1, 2007; 148(12): 5667 - 5679.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
Q. Zhou, J. Du, Z. Hu, K. Walsh, and X. H. Wang
Evidence for Adipose-Muscle Cross Talk: Opposing Regulation of Muscle Proteolysis by Adiponectin and Fatty Acids
Endocrinology, December 1, 2007; 148(12): 5696 - 5705.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
E. E. Kershaw, M. Schupp, H.-P. Guan, N. P. Gardner, M. A. Lazar, and J. S. Flier
PPAR{gamma} regulates adipose triglyceride lipase in adipocytes in vitro and in vivo
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, December 1, 2007; 293(6): E1736 - E1745.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
A. J. Glassford, P. Yue, A. Y. Sheikh, H. J. Chun, S. Zarafshar, D. A. Chan, G. M. Reaven, T. Quertermous, and P. S. Tsao
HIF-1 regulates hypoxia- and insulin-induced expression of apelin in adipocytes
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, December 1, 2007; 293(6): E1590 - E1596.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
V. Puri, S. Konda, S. Ranjit, M. Aouadi, A. Chawla, M. Chouinard, A. Chakladar, and M. P. Czech
Fat-specific Protein 27, a Novel Lipid Droplet Protein That Enhances Triglyceride Storage
J. Biol. Chem., November 23, 2007; 282(47): 34213 - 34218.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. Shea, E. Randell, S. Vasdev, P. P. Wang, B. Roebothan, and G. Sun
Serum retinol-binding protein 4 concentrations in response to short-term overfeeding in normal-weight, overweight, and obese men
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1310 - 1315.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.Home page
L. A. Healy, A. M. Ryan, B. Gopinath, S. Rowley, P. J. Byrne, and J. V. Reynolds
Impact of obesity on outcomes in the management of localized adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction.
J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., November 1, 2007; 134(5): 1284 - 1291.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
I. Aeberli, R. Biebinger, R. Lehmann, D. l'Allemand, G. A. Spinas, and M. B. Zimmermann
Serum Retinol-Binding Protein 4 Concentration and Its Ratio to Serum Retinol Are Associated with Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome Components in Children
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2007; 92(11): 4359 - 4365.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
P. Rao, Z. H. Huang, and T. Mazzone
Angiotensin II Regulates Adipocyte Apolipoprotein E Expression
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2007; 92(11): 4366 - 4372.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
F. Haugen and C. A. Drevon
Activation of Nuclear Factor-{kappa}B by High Molecular Weight and Globular Adiponectin
Endocrinology, November 1, 2007; 148(11): 5478 - 5486.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Ther Adv Cardiovasc DisHome page
P. Margozzini, A. Rigotti, C. Ferreccio, N. Quezada, M. Garrido, and G. Valdes
Review: Hypertension and the cardiometabolic syndrome in Chile: a review of concepts and consequences for the developing world
Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease, October 1, 2007; 1(1): 83 - 90.
[Abstract] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
E Krusinova, M Klementova, J Kopecky, P Wohl, L Kazdova, P Mlejnek, M Pravenec, M Hill, and T Pelikanova
Effect of acute hyperinsulinaemia with and without angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade on resistin and adiponectin concentrations and expressions in healthy subjects
Eur. J. Endocrinol., October 1, 2007; 157(4): 443 - 449.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
L. Bouchard, M.-C. Vohl, Y. Deshaies, C. Rheaume, M. Daris, and A. Tchernof
Visceral adipose tissue zinc finger protein 36 mRNA levels are correlated with insulin, insulin resistance index, and adiponectinemia in women
Eur. J. Endocrinol., October 1, 2007; 157(4): 451 - 457.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical SciencesHome page
T. You, W. E. Sonntag, X. Leng, and C. S. Carter
Lifelong Caloric Restriction and Interleukin-6 Secretion From Adipose Tissue: Effects on Physical Performance Decline in Aged Rats
J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., October 1, 2007; 62(10): 1082 - 1087.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
J. E. Drew, A. J. Farquharson, S. Padidar, G. G. Duthie, J. G. Mercer, J. R. Arthur, P. C. Morrice, and L. N. Barrera
Insulin, leptin, and adiponectin receptors in colon: regulation relative to differing body adiposity independent of diet and in response to dimethylhydrazine
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): G682 - G691.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
K. B. Goralski, T. C. McCarthy, E. A. Hanniman, B. A. Zabel, E. C. Butcher, S. D. Parlee, S. Muruganandan, and C. J. Sinal
Chemerin, a Novel Adipokine That Regulates Adipogenesis and Adipocyte Metabolism
J. Biol. Chem., September 21, 2007; 282(38): 28175 - 28188.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
D. Barb, C. J Williams, A. K Neuwirth, and C. S Mantzoros
Adiponectin in relation to malignancies: a review of existing basic research and clinical evidence
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2007; 86(3): 858S - 866S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
V. Vu, W. Kim, X. Fang, Y.-T. Liu, A. Xu, and G. Sweeney
Coculture with Primary Visceral Rat Adipocytes from Control But Not Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Animals Increases Glucose Uptake in Rat Skeletal Muscle Cells: Role of Adiponectin
Endocrinology, September 1, 2007; 148(9): 4411 - 4419.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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